Decarbonized cement blends

ABSTRACT

Various embodiments include cementitious compositions with low levels of embodied greenhouse gas emissions, in particular carbon dioxide, as a result of its production and/or use compared to conventional cementitious materials, such as portland cement. Various embodiments include any cementitious material or materials with low embodied carbon, as well as any material produced using this cement.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of International Application No.PCT/US2022/021204, filed Mar. 21, 2022, which claims the benefit ofpriority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 63/164,395 filed Mar. 22,2021, U.S. Provisional Application No. 63/274,378 filed Nov. 1, 2021,and U.S. Provisional Application No. 63/291,170 filed Dec. 17, 2021, theentire contents of each priority application is hereby incorporated byreference for all purposes.

GOVERNMENT SUPPORT CLAUSE

This invention was made with government support under Award No.DE-AR0001494 awarded by the Advanced Research Projects Agency - Energy(ARPA-E) of the U.S. Department of Energy to Sublime Systems, Inc. Thegovernment has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND

Greenhouse gas emissions, in particular carbon dioxide (CO₂), as aresult of its production and/or use of conventional cementitiousmaterials contribute to climate change. Currently, portland cement isone of the most widely used manmade materials in the world. Conventionalmethods for manufacturing portland cement account for around eightpercent of all global CO₂ emissions, approximately half of which arisefrom fossil fuel combustion and half of which arise from “chemical”emissions from limestone decomposition. Human civilization requires theuse of cement, but reducing CO₂ emissions in the production and/or useof cementitious materials may be beneficial to reduce the CO₂ emissionscontributing to climate change.

This Background section is intended to introduce various aspects of theart, which may be associated with embodiments of the present inventions.Thus, the foregoing discussion in this section provides a framework forbetter understanding the present inventions, and is not to be viewed asan admission of prior art.

SUMMARY

Various embodiments include cementitious compositions with low levels ofembodied greenhouse gas emissions, in particular carbon dioxide, as aresult of its production and/or use compared to conventionalcementitious materials, such as portland cement. Various embodimentsinclude any cementitious material or materials with low embodied carbon,as well as any material produced using this cement (includingconcrete/mortar and applications thereof such as buildings, roads,etc.). The various embodiments also include methods for making and usingsaid materials. Compositions according to the various embodimentsinclude pozzolanic cement blends comprising decarbonized lime, one ormore pozzolans, and optionally additional components. Said decarbonizedlime may be produced using a process wherein the combined CO₂ emissionsto the atmosphere from chemically bound sources in the raw material andfrom the combustion of fuels is less than 1 kg CO₂ per kg lime.

A cementitious binder comprising precipitated lime and at least onepozzolan.

A cementitious binder comprising lime and at least one pozzolan.

A cementitious binder comprising lime, at least one pozzolan, and atleast one additional material selected from the group includingtricalcium silicate, calcium aluminate cement, calcium sulfoaluminatecement, and ye’elemite.

A method of forming a cementitious binder, comprising: creating acalcium hydroxide through a precipitation reaction; selecting at leastone pozzolan; optionally, selecting one or more additional componentsfrom the group including portland cement, portland cement clinker,tricalcium silicate, ye’elemite, calcium aluminate cement, calciumsulfoaluminate cement, calcium carbonate, water reducing admixture, setaccelerating admixture, defoaming admixture, air entraining admixture,and/or calcium sulfate; and blending the calcium hydroxide, the selectedat least one pozzolan, and any selected components to create a mixture,such as a powder mixture, a uniform powder mixture, a dry powdermixture, a uniform dry powder mixture, etc.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated herein and constitutepart of this specification, illustrate example embodiments of theclaims, and together with the general description given above and thedetailed description given below, serve to explain the features of theclaims.

FIG. 1 illustrates a specific example system in accordance with variousembodiments.

FIG. 2 illustrates a specific example reactor in accordance with variousembodiments comprising a first electrode and a second electrode.

FIG. 3 illustrates methods of manufacturing decarbonized cement and/ordecarbonized concrete in accordance with various embodiments.

FIG. 4 illustrates a method of forming a cementitious binder inaccordance with various embodiments.

FIG. 5 is a ternary phase diagram illustrating mass composition ofdecarbonized cement, lime, pozzolans, and other materials.

The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated herein and constitutepart of this specification, illustrate example embodiments of theclaims, and together with the general description given above and thedetailed description given below, serve to explain the features of theclaims.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

References made to particular examples and implementations are forillustrative purposes and are not intended to limit the scope of theclaims. The following description of the embodiments of the invention isnot intended to limit the invention to these embodiments but rather toenable a person skilled in the art to make and use this invention.

As used herein unless specified otherwise, the recitation of ranges ofvalues herein is merely intended to serve as a shorthand method ofreferring individually to each separate value falling within the range.Unless otherwise indicated herein, each individual value within a rangeis incorporated into the specification as if it were individuallyrecited herein.

The following examples are provided to illustrate various embodiments ofthe present systems and methods of the present inventions. Theseexamples are for illustrative purposes, may be prophetic, and should notbe viewed as limiting, and do not otherwise limit the scope of thepresent inventions.

It is noted that there is no requirement to provide or address thetheory underlying the novel and groundbreaking processes, materials,performance or other beneficial features and properties that are thesubject of, or associated with, embodiments of the present inventions.Nevertheless, various theories are provided in this specification tofurther advance the art in this area. The theories put forth in thisspecification, and unless expressly stated otherwise, in no way limit,restrict or narrow the scope of protection to be afforded the claimedinventions. These theories may not be required or practiced to utilizethe present inventions. It is further understood that the presentinventions may lead to new, and heretofore unknown theories to explainthe function-features of embodiments of the methods, articles,materials, devices and system of the present inventions; and such laterdeveloped theories shall not limit the scope of protection afforded thepresent inventions.

The various embodiments of systems, equipment, techniques, methods,activities and operations set forth in this specification may be usedfor various other activities and in other fields in addition to thoseset forth herein. Additionally, these embodiments, for example, may beused with: other equipment or activities that may be developed in thefuture; and, with existing equipment or activities which may bemodified, in part, based on the teachings of this specification.Further, the various embodiments and examples set forth in thisspecification may be used with each other, in whole or in part, and indifferent and various combinations. Thus, for example, theconfigurations provided in the various embodiments of this specificationmay be used with each other; and the scope of protection afforded thepresent inventions should not be limited to a particular embodiment,configuration or arrangement that is set forth in a particularembodiment, example, or in an embodiment in a particular figure.

As used herein, unless stated otherwise, room temperature is 25° C. And,standard temperature and pressure is 25° C. and 1 atmosphere. Unlessexpressly stated otherwise all tests, test results, physical properties,and values that are temperature dependent, pressure dependent, or both,are provided at standard ambient temperature and pressure.

Generally, the term “about” as used herein unless specified otherwise ismeant to encompass a variance or range of ±10%, the experimental orinstrument error associated with obtaining the stated value, andpreferably the larger of these.

As used herein unless specified otherwise, the recitation of ranges ofvalues herein is merely intended to serve as a shorthand method ofreferring individually to each separate value falling within the range.Unless otherwise indicated herein, each individual value within a rangeis incorporated into the specification as if it were individuallyrecited herein.

As used herein, “precipitated” may mean formed in a precipitationreaction.

As used herein, “precipitation reaction” may mean a chemical reactionwherein two solutions containing dissolved ionic species are combinedand the ions react to form a solid.

As used herein, “lime” may be a material comprising quicklime (calciumoxide, CaO), hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)₂), or a mixture ofthe two.

As used herein, “pozzolan” may be a silicate or aluminosilicate mineral,either naturally occurring or synthesized (man-made). It may be anysilicate-bearing material that is capable of reacting with lime to setand harden, with or without the presence of water, to form a cement orconcrete.

As used herein, “electrochemical calcium hydroxide” may be calciumhydroxide created using a component or reagent such as an acid or a baseproduced in an electrochemical reactor.

As used herein, “low-temperature calcium hydroxide” may be calciumhydroxide synthesized in a process with a maximum temperature belowabout 100° C.

As used herein, “decarbonized calcium hydroxide” may be calciumhydroxide synthesized in a process that emits to the atmosphere lessthan about 0.50 kilograms (kg) CO₂ per kg Ca(OH)₂.

As used herein, “Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) technique” or “BETtechnique” may refer to a method of measuring the specific surface area(surface area per unit mass expressed in square meter per gram (m²/g))of a solid material via the adsorption of gas molecules on the surfaceof the solid.

As used herein, “Barrett, Joyner, and Halenda pore volume” or “BJH porevolume” may refer to the volume of mesopores per unit mass expressed inmilliliters per gram (mL/g) of a solid material measured via adsorptionand/or condensation of gas molecules inside mesopores of the solid.

To prepare a sample for gas adsorption analysis, the sample is firstweighed in a clean glass sample tube. The mass of sample analyzed shouldbe between about 400 mg and 600 mg. Then the sample is degassed toremove any volatile compounds from the sample. This ensures the surfaceof the sample material is clean and that no gasses other than theadsorption gas will evolve from the sample during analysis. For samplesthat do not degrade or decompose during degassing such as mostpozzolans, the degassing is typically performed by bringing the sampleto a temperature of 300° C. and a pressure of 1 atm for at least 3hours. If there is a risk that the sample will degrade or decomposeduring this degassing procedure, as may occur with some calciumhydroxide materials, the sample may be degassed at a lower temperaturesuch as 150° C. for a longer period of time such as 12 hours. Once thesample is degassed, it is transferred to a surface analyzer instrumentsuch as a Micromeritics 3Flex Adsorption Analyzer. An appropriateadsorbate gas that is inert to the sample is selected to ensure that theonly interaction between the gas and sample is the physical adsorptionof the gas onto the surface, and that there are no other chemicalreactions. Typically, N₂ is chosen as the adsorption gas for cement,pozzolan, and lime materials. The sample is then immersed in liquidnitrogen until the sample temperature is equal to the liquid nitrogentemperature. The surface analyzer then brings the sample chamber tovacuum, begins dosing known quantities of nitrogen, and allows thesystem to equilibrate after each does. Once the system reachesequilibrium, the pressure and gas volume that has been dosed arerecorded and another quantity of gas is dosed. Once the pressure reachessaturation pressure, P₀, the process is reversed, and gas is pumped outof the chamber. This allows for both adsorption and desorption of theanalysis gas on the sample surface. The resulting isotherm can bedisplayed as a graph, with one axis displaying pressure divided bysaturation pressure, P/P₀, and the other axis displaying the quantity ofadsorbed gas, in mol N₂ normalized by weight of sample. As pressureincreases, the quantity of gas adsorbed on the sample increases. Oncethe isotherm is collected, the data may be analyzed by applying the BET(Brunauer, Emmet, and Teller) theory of multilayer gas adsorption todetermine the sample’s specific surface area, and the BJH (Barrett,Joyner, and Halenda) theory of multilayer pore adsorption to determinethe volume of pores with diameters between 1 nm and 150 nm, and therelative distribution of pore sizes within the solid sample.

BET theory relates the formation of adsorption layers at low pressure tothe volume of gas absorbed, allowing for determination of the specificsurface are of the sample. The theory is applied at low values ofequilibrium pressure (P/P₀ < 0.4) to avoid the formation of too manyadsorption layers. Because the theory depends on the atomic radius ofthe gas, the cross-section area, the sample surface roughness, and thecondensation temperature, the measured surface area can vary dependingon the analysis gas. The values specified herein refer to N₂ gasadsorption measurements. At least three data points at values of P/P₀between 0.025 and 0.30 are used to calculate the specific surface areausing the BET equation.

While BET theory uses the lower range of P/P₀ to determine the specificsurface area, BJH theory uses the upper range of P/P₀ to determine themicropore volume of the sample. At P/P₀ values about around 0.5, thesample surface may be completely covered with adsorbed gas molecules,and the adsorption of multilayers of gas molecules layers may begin. Asthe adsorbed gas layers increase in thickness, some pores may completelyfill with gas. Because the number of layers of adsorbed gas is limited,BJH theory may only be able to determine the volume of pores withdiameters between about 1 nm and 150 nm. Due to pore geometry andadsorption kinetics effects, the adsorption branch of the isotherm mayproduce a different measured pore volume than the desorption branch.Herein, BHJ pore volumes refer to values measured using the desorptionbranch of the isotherm, which may give a more accurate measure of porevolume and pore size distribution.

As used herein, “Blaine fineness” may mean air-permeability specificsurface area.

As used herein, “water demand” may mean the amount of water that must beadded to a particulate solid to produce a paste with the sameconsistency as a portland cement paste made with 0.4 parts water per 1.0parts cement by mass.

As used herein, “paste consistency water demand” may refer to the waterdemand as determined by comparing the consistency of a paste made from aparticulate solid sample mixed distilled water to the consistency of areference paste. The reference paste is prepared by mixing 100 grams (g)of portland cement with 40 g of water (water/binder mass ratio of 0.40).The paste is mixed well by hand using a spatula for at least one minute.The sample paste is prepared by mixing 100 g of the particulate solidsample material with a known quantity of distilled water. The quantityof water added may be adjusted based on the desired water/binder massratio (for example, for a water/binder mass ratio of 0.30, 30 g of waterwould be added to 100 g of the particulate solid). The paste is mixedwell by hand using a spatula for at least one minute, at which point theconsistency of the sample paste is compared with the consistency of thereference paste. If the consistency of the sample paste is thicker thanthe consistency of the reference paste, an additional 5 g water may beadded to the sample paste and mixed again for one minute. This processmay be repeated until the sample paste has the same consistency as thereference solution paste. The final water demand of the sample isdetermined by dividing the total amount of water added to the paste bythe starting amount of the dry particulate solid sample material. Thisentire process must be completed within 10 minutes (min) to ensure thereference paste viscosity does not change significantly during themeasurement.

As used herein, “mini-slump cone water demand” may refer to the waterdemand as measured by paste spread from a mini-slump cone. A mini-slumpcone with 19 millimeters (mm) top diameter, 38 mm bottom diameter, and57 mm height is placed on a flat paper marked with a set of concentriccircles with different diameters from 30 mm to 200 mm. 100 g of theparticulate solid to be measured is combined with a known quantity ofdistilled water. The quantity of water added may be adjusted based onthe desired water/binder mass ratio (for example, for a water/bindermass ratio of 0.40, 40 g of water would be added to 100 g of theparticulate solid). The particulate solid and water are mixed using ashear mixer for 30 s, then mixed with a spatula for 15 seconds (s), andfinally mixed again for another 30 s with the shear mixer. Thehomogeneously mixed paste is immediately poured into the minislump-cone, and then the cone is lifted slowly. After 30 s, a digitalphotograph is taken directly above the spread paste. This photograph isthen digitally analyzed to determine the spread area and calculate theequivalent diameter of the spread. Each paste is tested in triplicate,using three separately mixed batches of paste. The water demand isdefined as the amount of water that must be added to a particulate solidto produce a suspension with the same spread flow diameter as a portlandcement paste made with 0.4 parts water per 1.0 parts cement by mass.

As used herein, “calcium hydroxide reactivity” may mean the percentageof calcium hydroxide that reacts with a high reactivity metakaolinpozzolan to form a calcium aluminum silicate hydrate, consuming thecalcium hydroxide. To measure the calcium hydroxide reactivity, 20 g ofcalcium hydroxide is mixed with 40 g high reactivity metakaolin and 54 gof 0.5 molar potassium hydroxide solution in deionized water. The pasteis mixed at 1600 ± 50 revolutions per minute (rpm) using a high-shearmixer to achieve a homogeneous paste consistency. Approximately 50 g ofthe paste is poured into a small plastic container, sealed, and cured at40 ± 2° C. until the test day. The paste sample is unsealed and demoldedafter 28 days. Within 6 hours of demolding, approximately 100 mg of thepaste sample is placed into a crucible and heated inside athermogravimetric analysis (TGA) instrument to a temperature of 900° C.at a rate of 10° C./min. The amount of calcium hydroxide remaining inthe sample is determined based on the thermal decomposition of calciumhydroxide to calcium oxide, which occurs at a temperature of around400 - 500° C. The thermal decomposition leads to a mass loss in thesample, which may be used to calculate the amount of calcium hydroxidein the original sample. The reactivity of the calcium hydroxide isdetermined as the percentage of the original 20 g calcium hydroxide thatreacted in the cured paste sample. For example, if 1 gram of calciumhydroxide remains unreacted, then 20 g - 1 g = 19 g of calcium hydroxidereacted, for a reactivity of 19 g / 20 g = 95%.

As used herein, “aspect ratio” may mean the ratio of a particle’s majordiameter to its minor diameter.

As used herein, “raw or calcined natural pozzolan or clay” may refer toa raw or calcined naturally occurring material that behaves as apozzolan in accordance with the definition of the term “naturalpozzolan” provided in ASTM C125-20, “Standard Terminology Relating toConcrete and Concrete Aggregates.” Examples of raw or calcined naturalpozzolan or clay may include without limitation volcanic ash, tuff,pumicite, opaline chert, opaline shale, metakaolin, diatomaceous earth,rhyolite, and perlite.

As used herein, “cement mortar compressive strength” may refer to thecompressive strength as determined using the procedures of the testmethod described in ASTM C109.

As used herein, “initial setting time” may refer to the time of settingas determined using the procedures of the test method described in ASTMC191.

Various embodiments include cementitious compositions with low levels ofembodied greenhouse gas emissions, in particular carbon dioxide, as aresult of its production and/or use compared to conventionalcementitious materials, such as portland cement. Broadly, the variousembodiments include any cementitious material or materials with lowembodied carbon, as well as any material produced using this cement(including concrete/mortar and applications thereof such as buildings,roads, etc.). The various embodiments also include methods for makingand using said materials. Compositions according to the variousembodiments include pozzolanic cement blends comprising decarbonizedlime, one or more pozzolans, and optionally additional components. Saiddecarbonized lime may be produced using a process wherein the combinedCO₂ emissions to the atmosphere from chemically bound sources in the rawmaterial and from the combustion of fuels is less than 1 kg CO₂ per kglime. In some embodiments, the material is a pozzolanic cement blendcomposition comprising decarbonized lime, at least one pozzolan, andoptionally additional components. Said lime may comprise quicklime(calcium oxide, CaO), hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)₂), or amixture of the two. The cement may react with water to set and harden,which enables it to be used as a component of concrete, mortar, andother similar building materials. This cement blend may replace the useof portland cement in many applications. Since the manufacture ofportland cement results in 8% of all global CO₂ emissions, and thecement blends of the various embodiments will result in significantlylower CO₂ emissions. In various embodiments, substitution or replacementof portland cement with decarbonized pozzolanic cement in accordancewith various embodiments may be used as a method to significantly reduceatmospheric CO₂ emissions.

Various embodiments provide a cementitious material that has lowembodied carbon, meaning less CO₂ emitted to the atmosphere as a resultof its production, compared to conventional cementitious materials, suchas portland cement. Broadly, various embodiments may providecementitious materials that have low embodied carbon. Variousembodiments also include materials, structures, and/or objects madeentirely or partially from said cementitious materials that have lowembodied carbon, including concrete, mortar, grout, stucco, plaster,fillers, aggregate, whitewashes, bricks, boards, pre-cast forms,shotcrete/gunite, housing foundations, sidewalks, roads, bridges, dams,etc. Various embodiments also include methods used for producing thelow-embodied carbon cementitious material or any methods for using thelow-embodied carbon cementitious material to produce other products.

Various embodiments may include a low-embodied-carbon cement blendcomposition comprising lime, at least one pozzolan, and optionallyadditional components. In some embodiments, the cement may be made usinglime and/or pozzolan(s) that are produced using a process withsubstantially reduced CO₂ emissions to the atmosphere due to theconsumption of fossil fuels. In some embodiments, the cement is madefrom lime and/or pozzolan(s) that are produced using a process withsubstantially reduced “chemical” CO₂ emissions to the atmosphere,meaning CO₂ emissions originating from chemical reactions involved insynthesizing the material, including, but not limited to, the conversionof limestone to lime. Various embodiments also include methods ofmanufacturing said cements.

Various embodiments may include methods to manufacture the cementsdescribed herein. Various embodiments may include cement compositions asdescribed herein. Various embodiments may include cement with certainproperties or performance characteristics as described herein.

In various embodiments, the cement may include lime. In variousembodiments, the lime may comprise quicklime (calcium oxide, CaO),hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)₂), or a mixture of the two.Most typically the lime of the various embodiments may be hydrated lime.The lime may contain impurities of elements other than calcium, oxygen,and hydrogen. In some cases, the lime may contain as much as 50% by massmagnesium oxide or magnesium hydroxide. The lime may also contain othertrace impurities, such as compounds of aluminum, silicon, iron, sodium,potassium, chlorine, nitrogen, sulfur, or other elements. Theseimpurities may include chloride ions, sulfate ions, or nitrate ions. Thelime may be in the form of solid particles with major diameters between1 nanometer (nm) and 1 mm. The most typical lime particle major diameterrange may be 500 nm - 30 microns in various embodiments. The lime may bea dry, free flowing powder. The lime may also contain some moisture asadsorbed or liquid water. The lime may be a suspension of particles inwater or an aqueous solution, such as a sodium hydroxide solution.According to some embodiments, the low-embodied-carbon cement blend willcontain at least 1% by mass of the lime. Most typically the cement blendwill contain 10 - 50% by mass of lime in various embodiments.

In various embodiments, the lime may have one or more of the followingattributes, including combinations and variations of the followingattributes.

In various embodiments, the lime have a specific surface area of atleast 0.01 m²/g, 0.05 m²/g, 0.1 m²/g, 0.3 m²/g, 0.5 m²/g, 0.7 m²/g, 1m²/g, 2 m²/g, 3 m²/g, 4 m²/g, 5 m²/g, 6 m²/g, 7 m²/g, 8 m²/g, 9 m²/g, 10m²/g, 12 m²/g, 15 m²/g, 20 m²/g, 25 m²/g, 30 m²/g, 35 m²/g, 40 m²/g, 45m²/g, 50 m²/g, 60 m²/g, 70 m²/g, 80 m²/g, 90 m²/g, 100 m²/g, 120 m²/g,150 m²/g, 200 m²/g, 300 m²/g, 400 m²/g, 500 m²/g, 700 m²/g, or 1000 m²/gas measured using a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) technique. In variousembodiments, the lime have a specific surface area of about 0.01 m²/g,0.05 m²/g, 0.1 m²/g, 0.3 m²/g, 0.5 m²/g, 0.7 m²/g, 1 m²/g, 2 m²/g, 3m²/g, 4 m²/g, 5 m²/g, 6 m²/g, 7 m²/g, 8 m²/g, 9 m²/g, 10 m²/g, 12 m²/g,15 m²/g, 20 m²/g, 25 m²/g, 30 m²/g, 35 m²/g, 40 m²/g, 45 m²/g, 50 m²/g,60 m²/g, 70 m²/g, 80 m²/g, 90 m²/g, 100 m²/g, 120 m²/g, 150 m²/g, 200m²/g, 300 m²/g, 400 m²/g, 500 m²/g, 700 m²/g, 1000 m²/g, or 0.01-1000m²g as measured using a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) technique

In various embodiments, the lime may have a specific surface area ofless than 0.01 m²/g, 0.05 m²/g, 0.1 m²/g, 0.3 m²/g, 0.5 m²/g, 0.7 m²/g,1 m²/g, 2 m²/g, 3 m²/g, 4 m²/g, 5 m²/g, 6 m²/g, 7 m²/g, 8 m²/g, 9 m²/g,10 m²/g, 12 m²/g, 15 m²/g, 20 m²/g, 25 m²/g, 30 m²/g, 35 m²/g, 40 m²/g,45 m²/g, 50 m²/g, 60 m²/g, 70 m²/g, 80 m²/g, 90 m²/g, 100 m²/g, 120m²/g, 150 m²/g, 200 m²/g, 300 m²/g, 400 m²/g, 500 m²/g, 700 m²/g, or1000 m²/g as measured using a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) technique.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a micropore volume and/or aBarrett, Joyner and Halenda (BJH) pore volume of at least 0.01 mL/g,0.02 mL/g, 0.03 mL/g, 0.04 mL/g, 0.05 mL/g, 0.06 mL/g, 0.07 mL/g, 0.08mL/g, 0.09 mL/g, 0.10 mL/g, 0.11 mL/g, 0.12 mL/g, 0.13 mL/g, 0.14 mL/g,0.15 mL/g, 0.16 mL/g, 0.17 mL/g, 0.18 mL/g, 0.19 mL/g, 0.20 mL/g, 0.25mL/g, 0.30 mL/g, 0.40 mL/g, 0.50 mL/g, 0.60 mL/g, 0.70 mL/g, 0.80 mL/g,0.90 mL/g, 1.00 mL/g, 1.2 mL/g, 1.4 mL/g, 1.6 mL/g, 1.8 mL/g, 2 mL/g, 3mL/g, 4 mL/g, 5 mL/g, 6 mL/g, 7 mL/g, 8 mL/g, 9 mL/g, 10 mL/g, 20 mL/g,30 mL/g, 40 mL/g, or 50 mL/g. In various embodiments, the lime may havea micropore volume and/or a Barrett, Joyner and Halenda (BJH) porevolume of about 0.01 mL/g, 0.02 mL/g, 0.03 mL/g, 0.04 mL/g, 0.05 mL/g,0.06 mL/g, 0.07 mL/g, 0.08 mL/g, 0.09 mL/g, 0.10 mL/g, 0.11 mL/g, 0.12mL/g, 0.13 mL/g, 0.14 mL/g, 0.15 mL/g, 0.16 mL/g, 0.17 mL/g, 0.18 mL/g,0.19 mL/g, 0.20 mL/g, 0.25 mL/g, 0.30 mL/g, 0.40 mL/g, 0.50 mL/g, 0.60mL/g, 0.70 mL/g, 0.80 mL/g, 0.90 mL/g, 1.00 mL/g, 1.2 mL/g, 1.4 mL/g,1.6 mL/g, 1.8 mL/g, 2 mL/g, 3 mL/g, 4 mL/g, 5 mL/g, 6 mL/g, 7 mL/g, 8mL/g, 9 mL/g, 10 mL/g, 20 mL/g, 30 mL/g, 40 mL/g, 50 mL/g, or 0.01-50mL/g.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a micropore volume and/or aBarrett, Joyner and Halenda (BJH) pore volume of less than 0.01 mL/g,0.02 mL/g, 0.03 mL/g, 0.04 mL/g, 0.05 mL/g, 0.06 mL/g, 0.07 mL/g, 0.08mL/g, 0.09 mL/g, 0.10 mL/g, 0.11 mL/g, 0.12 mL/g, 0.13 mL/g, 0.14 mL/g,0.15 mL/g, 0.16 mL/g, 0.17 mL/g, 0.18 mL/g, 0.19 mL/g, 0.20 mL/g, 0.25mL/g, 0.30 mL/g, 0.40 mL/g, 0.50 mL/g, 0.60 mL/g, 0.70 mL/g, 0.80 mL/g,0.90 mL/g, 1.00 mL/g, 1.2 mL/g, 1.4 mL/g, 1.6 mL/g, 1.8 mL/g, 2 mL/g, 3mL/g, 4 mL/g, 5 mL/g, 6 mL/g, 7 mL/g, 8 mL/g, 9 mL/g, 10 mL/g, 20 mL/g,30 mL/g, 40 mL/g, or 50 mL/g.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a Blaine fineness(air-permeability specific surface area) of at least 0.01 m²/g, 0.05m²/g, 0.1 m²/g, 0.3 m²/g, 0.5 m²/g, 0.7 m²/g, 1 m²/g, 2 m²/g, 3 m²/g, 4m²/g, 5 m²/g, 6 m²/g, 7 m²/g, 8 m²/g, 9 m²/g, 10 m²/g, 12 m²/g, 15 m²/g,20 m²/g, 25 m²/g, 30 m²/g, 35 m²/g, 40 m²/g, 45 m²/g, 50 m²/g, 60 m²/g,70 m²/g, 80 m²/g, 90 m²/g, 100 m²/g, 120 m²/g, 150 m²/g, 200 m²/g, 300m²/g, 400 m²/g, 500 m²/g, 700 m²/g, or 1000 m²/g as measured using themethod and apparatus described in ASTM C204: Test Methods for Finenessof Hydraulic Cement by Air-Permeability Apparatus. In variousembodiments, the lime may have a Blaine fineness (air-permeabilityspecific surface area) of at least 0.01 m²/g, 0.05 m²/g, 0.1 m²/g, 0.3m²/g, 0.5 m²/g, 0.7 m²/g, 1 m²/g, 2 m²/g, 3 m²/g, 4 m²/g, 5 m²/g, 6m²/g, 7 m²/g, 8 m²/g, 9 m²/g, 10 m²/g, 12 m²/g, 15 m²/g, 20 m²/g, 25m²/g, 30 m²/g, 35 m²/g, 40 m²/g, 45 m²/g, 50 m²/g, 60 m²/g, 70 m²/g, 80m²/g, 90 m²/g, 100 m²/g, 120 m²/g, 150 m²/g, 200 m²/g, 300 m²/g, 400m²/g, 500 m²/g, 700 m²/g, 1000 m²/g, or 0.01-1000 m²/g as measured usingthe method and apparatus described in ASTM C204: Test Methods forFineness of Hydraulic Cement by Air-Permeability Apparatus.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a Blaine fineness(air-permeability specific surface area) of less than 0.01 m²/g, 0.05m²/g, 0.1 m²/g, 0.3 m²/g, 0.5 m²/g, 0.7 m²/g, 1 m²/g, 2 m²/g, 3 m²/g, 4m²/g, 5 m²/g, 6 m²/g, 7 m²/g, 8 m²/g, 9 m²/g, 10 m²/g, 12 m²/g, 15 m²/g,20 m²/g, 25 m²/g, 30 m²/g, 35 m²/g, 40 m²/g, 45 m²/g, 50 m²/g, 60 m²/g,70 m²/g, 80 m²/g, 90 m²/g, 100 m²/g, 120 m²/g, 150 m²/g, 200 m²/g, 300m²/g, 400 m²/g, 500 m²/g, 700 m²/g, or 1000 m²/g as measured using themethod and apparatus described in ASTM C204: Test Methods for Finenessof Hydraulic Cement by Air-Permeability Apparatus.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a hexagonal prism and/orhexagonal antiprism morphology.

In various embodiments, the lime may have an average roughness factor ofless than 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.75, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15,20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, or 100, where roughness factor isdefined as the quotient of a particle’s actual surface area to volumeratio to the surface area to volume ratio expected for a sphere havingthe same volume as the actual particle.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a water demand of a lime pasteless than 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5, 0.55, 0.6, 0.65, 0.7,0.75, 0.8, 0.85, 0.9 on a weight basis to obtain a sufficiently flowablecolloidal suspension. The water demand may be determined from therheology of a colloidal suspension of lime and water compared to areference solution. According to one method, the reference solution isordinary portland cement as defined by ASTM C150: Specification forPortland Cement, and water as defined by ASTM C1682: Specification forMixing Water Used in the Production of Hydraulic Cement Concrete, in amass ratio of 0.4:1 parts water to cement. For example, the amounts usedmay be 100 g of ordinary portland cement and 40 g of water. Thereference suspension may be used for calibration, preferably by oneskilled in the art of cement testing. The test colloidal suspension maybe prepared by adding 100 g of dry powdered lime to a mixing container,and adding 10 g of water. This mixture may be mixed well by hand for atleast a minute, at which point the viscosity of the colloidal suspensionis compared to the reference described above. If the viscosity is deemedhigher than the reference solution, water may be added in 5 g incrementsand mixed again for one minute. This process may be repeated until thesample solution has the same viscosity as the reference solutionprepared. The final water demand may be determined by dividing the totalamount of water added to the colloidal suspension by the starting amountof dry powdered lime used.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a flow table spread of a limemortar of at least 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, or 90% as measuredusing the method and apparatus described in ASTM C1437: Standard TestMethod for Flow of Hydraulic Cement Mortar, using a mortar with a ratioof 1:2.75 lime to Graded Test sand as defined by ASTM C109. In variousembodiments, the lime may have a flow table spread of a lime mortar ofabout 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, or 20-90% as measuredusing the method and apparatus described in ASTM C1437: Standard TestMethod for Flow of Hydraulic Cement Mortar, using a mortar with a ratioof 1:2.75 lime to Graded Test sand as defined by ASTM C109. The mortarmay be prepared using a water to dry powdered lime ratio of 0.485:1following the ratio outlined in ASTM C109, where said water is definedby ASTM C1682: Specification for Mixing Water Used in the Production ofHydraulic Cement Concrete. The mortar may be mixed in accordance withthe mixing procedure included in ASTM C109: Test Method for CompressiveStrength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (using 2-in. Or [50-mm] CubeSpecimens).

In various embodiments, the lime may have a water demand of a limemortar less than 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5, 0.55, 0.6, 0.65,0.7, 0.75, 0.8, 0.85, 0.9 on a weight basis while obtaining a flowablecolloidal suspension. The water demand of a lime mortar may bedetermined by preparing a mortar mix consisting of dry powdered lime andGraded Test Sand as defined by ASTM C109: Test Method for CompressiveStrength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (using 2-in. Or [50-mm] CubeSpecimens), in a 1:2.75 mass ratio. This mass ratio may be determined byASTM C109, a standard ratio of cementitious material to sand. The actualamount of dry powdered lime used may be 250 g and the actual amount ofsand used may be 687.5 g. Water as defined by ASTM C1682: Specificationfor Mixing Water Used in the Production of Hydraulic Cement Concrete,may be added initially at a weight fraction of 0.1, or 25 g, and themixing procedure specified in ASTM C109 may be used to prepare themortar. The mortar may be evaluated for flow using the method andapparatus found in ASTM C1437: Standard Test Method for Flow ofHydraulic Cement Mortar. If the mortar flow is less than 30%, a weightfraction of 0.05, or 12.5 g, may be added to the mortar. The mixingprocedure specified in ASTM C109 may be conducted again, following whichthe flow determination procedure found in ASTM C1437 may be conducted.This process may be repeated until the sample suspension has a mortarflow greater than 30%. The final water demand is determined by dividingthe total amount of water added to the colloidal suspension by thestarting amount of dry powdered lime used. The sand is not included inthe weight determination.

In various embodiments, the lime may have an average primary particlediameter of at least 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50 nm, 70 nm,100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3 micron, 4micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10 micron, 12micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35 micron, 40micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90 micron, 100micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300 micron, 400micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900 micron, or 1mm. In various embodiments, the lime may have an average primaryparticle diameter of about 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50 nm,70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900micron, 1 mm, or 1 nm-1mm.

In various embodiments, the lime may have an average primary particlediameter of less than 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50 nm, 70 nm,100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3 micron, 4micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10 micron, 12micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35 micron, 40micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90 micron, 100micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300 micron, 400micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900 micron, or 1mm.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a narrow particle sizedistribution, as defined by having at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%,95%, or 99% of particles by count or by mass within a diameter rangehaving a width of less than 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50 nm,70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900micron, or 1 mm.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a wide particle sizedistribution, as defined by having at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%,95%, or 99% of particles by count or by mass within a diameter rangehaving a width of at least 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50 nm,70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900micron, or 1 mm. In various embodiments, the lime may have a wideparticle size distribution, as defined by having at least 50%, 60%, 70%,80%, 90%, 95%, or 99% of particles by count or by mass within a diameterrange having a width of about 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900micron, 1 mm, or 1 nm-1 mm.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a primary crystal morphologywith hexagonal cross-section, including the morphology of a hexagonalprism.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a minimum aspect ratio of allparticles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’s largest lineardimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension, of at least 1,1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20,25, 30, 40, or 50. In various embodiments, the lime may have a minimumaspect ratio of all particles, defined as the ratio of the primaryparticle’s largest linear dimension to the primary particle’s smallestdimension, of about 1, 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5,6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, or 1-50.

In various embodiments, the lime may have an average aspect ratio of allparticles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’s largest lineardimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension, of at least 1,1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20,25, 30, 40, or 50. In various embodiments, the lime may have an averageaspect ratio of all particles, defined as the ratio of the primaryparticle’s largest linear dimension to the primary particle’s smallestdimension, of about 1, 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5,6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, or 1-50.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a minimum aspect ratio of allparticles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’s largest lineardimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension, of less than1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20,25, 30, 40, or 50.

In various embodiments, the lime may have an average aspect ratio of allparticles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’s largest lineardimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension, of less than1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20,25, 30, 40, or 50.

In various embodiments, the lime may have an amorphous content of atleast 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1 %, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%,5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%,45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%,94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99%, by mass or volume.In various embodiments, the lime may have an amorphous content of about0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%,6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%,50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%,95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 0.01-99.99%, by massor volume

In various embodiments, the lime may have an amorphous content of lessthan 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1 %, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%,5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%,45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%,94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99%, by mass or volume.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a specific surface area tomajor diameter ratio of at least 0.1 (m²/g)/micron, 0.2 (m²/g)/micron,0.3 (m²/g)/micron, 0.5 (m²/g)/micron, 0.7 (m²/g)/micron, 1(m²/g)/micron, 3 (m²/g)/micron, 5 (m²/g)/micron, 7 (m²/g)/micron, 10(m²/g)/micron, 20 (m²/g)/micron, 30 (m²/g)/micron, 40 (m²/g)/micron, 50(m²/g)/micron, 70 (m²/g)/micron, or 100 (m²/g)/micron. In variousembodiments, the lime may have a specific surface area to major diameterratio of about 0.1 (m²/g)/micron, 0.2 (m²/g)/micron, 0.3 (m²/g)/micron,0.5 (m²/g)/micron, 0.7 (m²/g)/micron, 1 (m²/g)/micron, 3 (m²/g)/micron,5 (m²/g)/micron, 7 (m²/g)/micron, 10 (m²/g)/micron, 20 (m²/g)/micron, 30(m²/g)/micron, 40 (m²/g)/micron, 50 (m²/g)/micron, 70 (m²/g)/micron, 100(m²/g)/micron, or 0.1-100 (m²/g)/micron.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a specific surface area tomajor diameter ratio of less than 0.1 (m²/g)/micron, 0.2 (m²/g)/micron,0.3 (m²/g)/micron, 0.5 (m²/g)/micron, 0.7 (m²/g)/micron, 1(m²/g)/micron, 3 (m²/g)/micron, 5 (m²/g)/micron, 7 (m²/g)/micron, 10(m²/g)/micron, 20 (m²/g)/micron, 30 (m²/g)/micron, 40 (m²/g)/micron, 50(m²/g)/micron, 70 (m²/g)/micron, or 100 (m²/g)/micron.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a purity of at least 80%, 82%,84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or99.99% by mass calcium hydroxide. In various embodiments, the lime mayhave a purity of about 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%,97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 80-99.99% by mass calciumhydroxide.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a purity of less than 80%,82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9%or 99.99% by mass calcium hydroxide.

In various embodiments, the lime may have silica content of at least0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1 %, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%,6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%,or 50% by mass. In various embodiments, the lime may have silica contentof about 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1 %, 1.5%, 2%, 3%,4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%,40%, 45%, 50%, or 0.01-50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the lime may have silica content of less than0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1 %, 1.5%,2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%,35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the lime may have calcium carbonate content ofless than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%,1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%,25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the lime may have calcium carbonate content ofat least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In various embodiments, the lime mayhave calcium carbonate content of about 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%,0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%,10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, or 0.001-50%by mass.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a magnesium oxide content ofless than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%,1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%,25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a magnesium oxide content ofat least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In various embodiments, the lime mayhave a magnesium oxide content of about 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%,0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%,10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, or 0.001-50%by mass.

In various embodiments, the lime may have magnesium oxide content ofless than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%,1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%,25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a magnesium hydroxide contentof at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%,1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%,25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In various embodiments, thelime may have a magnesium hydroxide content of about 0.001%, 0.005%,0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%,6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%,50%, or 0.001-50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the lime may have magnesium hydroxide content ofless than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%,1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%,25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a calcium oxide content of atleast 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In various embodiments, the lime mayhave a calcium oxide content of about 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%,0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%,10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 0.001-50% bymass.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a calcium oxide content ofless than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%,1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%,25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a chloride content of at least0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%,2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%,35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In various embodiments, the lime may havea chloride content of about 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%,0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%,14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 0.001-50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a chloride content of lessthan 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a nitrate content of at least0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%,2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%,35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In various embodiments, the lime may havea nitrate content of about 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%,0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%,14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, or 0.001-50% by mass

In various embodiments, the lime may have a nitrate content of less than0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%,2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%,35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a nitrite content of at least0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%,2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%,35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In various embodiments, the lime may havea nitrite content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%,0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%,14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 0.001-50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a nitrite content of less than0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%,2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%,35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a sulfate content of at least0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%,2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%,35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In various embodiments, the lime may havea sulfate content of about 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%,0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%,14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, or 0.001-50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a sulfate content of less than0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1 %, 1.5%,2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%,35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a sulfite content of at least0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1 %, 1.5%,2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%,35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In various embodiments, the lime may havea sulfate content of about 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%,0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1 %, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%,14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 0.001-50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a sulfite content of less than0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1 %, 1.5%,2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%,35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a phosphate content of atleast 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1 %,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In various embodiments, the lime mayhave a phosphate content of about 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%,0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1 %, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%,12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 0.001-50% bymass.

In various embodiments, the lime may have a phosphate content of lessthan 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1 %,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

Without being limited by any particular theory, some of these propertiesof the lime may improve its performance in cement. In particular, limewith a large primary particle diameter, small specific surface area,and/or small micropore volume may correlate with low water demand. Thatis to say, these properties may mean less water must be added to cementcontaining such lime in order to achieve sufficiently high flow, largeslump, or low viscosity. This may be because particles with largeprimary particle diameter, small specific surface area, and/or smallmicropore volume adsorb or absorb smaller amounts of water, have smallersurface friction, have smaller viscous forces in suspension, or forother related reasons. Cements and/or concretes with lower water demandmay perform better because they can have sufficient flow, slump, orviscosity to be cast, pumped, or poured as needed to meet therequirements of a particular application, while having less water addedto the blend. Adding less water to the blend may result in highercompressive strength and/or shorter setting times. This may be becauseadding less water leads to lower pore volume in the hydrated, set,and/or hardened cement, mortar, or concrete, and reduced pore volume iscorrelated with increased compressive strength. In addition, particleswith certain diameters or diameter distributions may enable higherpacking efficiency or filling in of gaps or voids between particles oraggregates in cement or concrete, resulting in a denser material withhigher compressive strength. Cements, mortars, or concretes made withlower water to binder ratios may also have lower permeability due tolower porosity and a less interconnected pore structure (more closed andisolated pores), and therefore may resist penetration by chlorides,sulfates, or other ionic or molecular species that could lead todegradation of building materials or structures.

In some embodiments, the lime may be produced using a method thatreduces or eliminates entirely the emission of CO₂ into the atmospheredue to the consumption of fossil fuels during the production of thelime. Conventional quicklime (calcium oxide) may be produced bycalcining limestone at high temperatures by burning fossil fuels, suchas coal. According to the various embodiments, the lime may be producedby alternate means that reduce or eliminate the emission of CO₂ from theconsumption of fossil fuels.

In some embodiments, the lime may be “electrochemical” lime, meaningthat the production of the lime comprises the use of an electrochemicalprocess or an electrochemical device. In some embodiments, the lime maybe “electrolytic” lime, meaning the lime is produced in a process thatuses an electrolyzer. In some embodiments, the lime may be“precipitated” lime, meaning it is produced via a precipitationreaction. In some embodiments the lime will be “decarbonized” lime or“carbon-neutral” lime, meaning it is produced via a process with reducedor zero carbon dioxide emissions. In some embodiments, the embodiedcarbon dioxide of the lime will be at least 50%, at least 60%, at least70%, at least 80%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 98%, at least99%, or 100% lower than lime manufactured using incumbentcarbon-intensive technologies. Such technologies may include theproduction of lime from carbonates such as limestone and in which theCO₂ emissions are not captured and sequestered or utilized, or whereprocess emissions are incurred by heating said lime or its precursors bythe combustion of fossil fuels.

In some embodiments, the lime may be produced using electrochemicalmethods, including but not limited to those described in InternationalPatent Application Publication No. WO 2020/186178, International PatentApplication Publication No. WO 2020/150449, and International PatentApplication Publication No. WO 2022/020572, there entire contents of allthree of which are hereby incorporated by reference for all purposes.The term “electrochemical methods” may be here understood to mean anyprocess wherein electricity is used to power a device with a positiveelectrode, a negative electrode, and an electrolyte, wherein saidelectrolyte or a product of the electrochemical reaction of theelectrolyte is used to carry out a chemical or electrochemical reactionwith a source of calcium. In some embodiments, said electricity may beproduced at least in part using a non-fossil-fuel source of energy. Inone such electrochemical process, an electrochemical reactor may be usedto produce acid and/or base from an aqueous electrolyte. Theelectrolyzer may be powered by renewable, non-fossil-fuel sources ofelectricity such as solar or wind energy. The electrolyzer may producean acid that may be used to leach calcium ions from a calcium-bearingmineral input (e.g., limestone, waste concrete/cement, fly ash, bottomash, incinerator ash, steel slag, iron slag, wollastonite, basalt orother similar sources). In some embodiments, calcium hydroxide isprecipitated from the resulting solution of Ca²⁺ ions upon mixing saidsolution with a base. In some embodiments, the base may also be producedby an electrolyzer. In other embodiments, said acid may be obtained froma non-electrolytic source, and said base may be obtained from anelectrolytic source, or vice versa.

As one specific example, the lime may be produced using renewable energyas illustrated in FIG. 1 in which a specific example system 200 is shownfor generating cement. For example, a reactor may be a neutral-waterelectrolyzer 202 and the power source may be a renewable energy powersource 206 (e.g., providing electricity from wind energy, solar energy,etc.). As a specific example, the neutral-water electrolyzer 202 may bean electrochemical reactor 300 as illustrated in FIG. 2 . As illustratedin FIG. 1 , the electrochemical decarbonation reactor (decarbonationcell 202) powered by renewable electricity from renewable energy source206 converts CaCO₃to Ca(OH)₂ for use in cement synthesis by a cementplant kiln 208. The decarbonation cell 202 uses the pH gradient producedby neutral-water electrolysis to dissolve CaCO₃ at the acidic anode andprecipitate Ca(OH)₂ where the pH ≥ 12.5. Simultaneously, H₂ is generatedat the cathode and O₂/CO₂ are generated at the anode. These gas streamscan serve several alternative roles in a sustainable production system.CO₂ can be directly captured for carbon capture and sequestration (CCS).Electricity or heat can be generated from the H₂ and O₂ via fuel cells204 or combustors 205. The O₂/CO₂ oxy-fuel can be recirculated to thekiln 208 for cleaner combustion in the cement sintering cycle. CO₂ reuseand utilization (CO₂U) concepts can be employed, such as use in enhancedoil recovery (EOR) or production of liquid fuels. In some embodiments,the Ca(OH)₂ produced in this fashion may be an electrochemical calciumhydroxide, a decarbonized calcium hydroxide, and/or a precipitatedcalcium hydroxide. In some embodiments, the system comprises a reactor(e.g., an electrochemical reactor or other type reactor). In someembodiments, the reactor comprises the first electrode and the secondelectrode. For example, in some embodiments, the first electrode iselectrochemically coupled to the second electrode in the reactor. FIG. 2illustrates an example of such a reactor 300 including a first electrode301 and the second electrode 302. In accordance with some embodiments,the production of the base by the first electrode (e.g., 301) results inan alkaline region (e.g., any alkaline region described herein) near thefirst electrode (e.g., within the half of the reactor compartment thatis closest to the first electrode). For example, in some instances, thefluid adjacent the first electrode (e.g., the alkaline region) has ahigher pH than fluid further away from the first electrode. In someembodiments, the second electrode (e.g., 302) is configured to producean acidic output (e.g., any of the acids described herein). In certainembodiments, the acidic output is produced as a result of anelectrochemical reaction in the second electrode. In some embodiments,the first mode of the reactor comprises producing acid near the secondelectrode (e.g., acid is produced as a result of an electrochemicalreaction in the second electrode). In certain embodiments, the firstelectrode (e.g., cathode (e.g., 301)) is configured to produce hydrogengas, such that hydrogen gas can be produced near the first electrode(e.g., the hydrogen gas is produced as a result of an electrochemicalreaction in the first electrode). In some instances, running the reactorin the first mode comprises producing hydrogen gas (e.g., hydrogen gasand base) near the first electrode (e.g., hydrogen gas is produced as aresult of an electrochemical reaction in the first electrode). In someinstances, the hydrogen gas and/or base are produced near the firstelectrode by reduction of water near the first electrode. In certainembodiments, the second electrode (e.g., anode (e.g., 302)) isconfigured to produce oxygen, such that oxygen gas can be produced nearthe second electrode (e.g., the oxygen gas is produced as a result of anelectrochemical reaction in the second electrode). In certain cases,running the reactor in the first mode comprises producing oxygen gas(e.g., oxygen gas and acid) near the second electrode (e.g., oxygen gasis produced as a result of an electrochemical reaction in the secondelectrode). In some instances, the oxygen gas and/or acid are producednear the second electrode by oxidation of water near the secondelectrode.

In some embodiments, the system is configured to allow oxygen gas todiffuse and/or be transported to a location near the first electrode(e.g., 301) (e.g., from a location near the second electrode (e.g.,302)). For example, in some cases, the system is configured to allowoxygen gas to diffuse and/or be transported to fluid near the firstelectrode (e.g., 301), such that the oxygen gas could be involved in anelectrochemical reaction in the first electrode, from fluid near thesecond electrode, after the oxygen gas was produced as a result of anelectrochemical reaction in the second electrode.

According to certain embodiments, the system is configured to allow theoxygen gas to be reduced near the first electrode (e.g., 301) (e.g., theoxygen gas is reduced as a result of an electrochemical reaction in thefirst electrode). In some embodiments, reducing the oxygen gas near thefirst electrode comprises production of a base. In certain embodiments,the production of a base is advantageous because it increases theoverall amount of base produced at the first electrode.

In some embodiments, the system is configured to allow hydrogen gas todiffuse and/or be transported to a location near the second electrode(e.g., 302) (e.g., from a location near the first electrode (e.g.,301)). For example, in some cases, the system is configured to allowhydrogen gas to diffuse and/or be transported to fluid near the secondelectrode, such that the hydrogen gas could be involved in anelectrochemical reaction in the second electrode, from fluid near thefirst electrode, after the hydrogen gas was produced as a result of anelectrochemical reaction in the first electrode.

According to certain embodiments, the system is configured to allow thehydrogen gas to be oxidized near the second electrode (e.g., 302) (e.g.,hydrogen gas is oxidized as a result of an electrochemical reaction inthe second electrode). In some embodiments, oxidizing the hydrogen gasnear the second electrode comprises production of acid. In certainembodiments, the production of acid is advantageous because it increasesthe overall amount of acid produced at the second electrode.

In some embodiments, the system comprises a separator (e.g., 303). Incertain embodiments, the separator is configured to allow oxygen gasproduced at the second electrode (e.g., 302) to diffuse to the firstelectrode (e.g., 301) and/or to allow hydrogen gas produced at the firstelectrode to diffuse to the second electrode. For example, in someembodiments, the separator is permeable to oxygen gas and/or hydrogengas.

In some embodiments, both the acid and the base are provided from anon-electrolytic source. Nonetheless, by using the afore-mentioneddissolution and/or precipitation processes to produce lime, the use offossil fuels as a source of heat may be reduced or avoided entirely.

In some embodiments, the lime may be produced from a feedstock materialcomprising calcium carbonate. In some embodiments, said feedstockcomprises limestone. In some embodiments, said lime may be produced fromlimestone using one or more of the aforementioned electrochemical orchemical processes. Furthermore, in some embodiments, the CO₂ releasedupon decomposition of said limestone is captured and used, orsequestered, so the CO₂ is not emitted to the atmosphere. Thus, themethods of the various embodiments may also diminish or eliminate thechemical source of CO₂ emissions associated with the use of a calciumfeedstock comprising calcium carbonate.

In some embodiments, the lime may be produced from a calcium-containingsource material that is already substantially decarbonated. Thismaterial may comprise construction and demolition waste; recycled orwaste concrete, cement, mortar; a calcium-containing naturally occurringmineral such as a basaltic mineral or wollastonite; ash resulting fromcombustion, including but not limited to coal ash, fly ash, bottom ash,and incinerator ash, or other similar materials. In some embodiments,the lime may be produced from these decarbonized or waste materialsusing the methods described above. In some embodiments, the dissolutionof these feedstock materials substantially or completely avoids therelease of CO₂ molecules.

In some embodiments, waste materials from the process of manufacturinglime or cement may be used as the source of calcium. These may includelime kiln dust or cement kiln dust. In some embodiments, these materialsmay be lime in the form of quicklime (CaO), and may be used directly inproducing a cement blend. In some embodiments, the lime kiln dust orcement kiln dust may be used as a feedstock material for a process toproduce lime, including by the methods described above. In someembodiments, the use of lime kiln dust or cement kiln dust comprises theuse of a decarbonized source of lime even if the process originally usedto produce said lime uses fossil fuels or emits chemical CO₂ from thedecomposition of calcium carbonate or limestone, because the use of saidwaste material displaces the use of a calcium source or process thatdoes release CO₂ emissions to the atmosphere. In other embodiments, thelime kiln dust or cement kiln dust may be produced in a process thatdoes not result in CO₂ emissions to the atmosphere, due to the use of anelectric kiln or calciner and/or by capturing and sequestering CO₂emissions, or beneficially using such CO₂ emissions in other products orapplications.

In some embodiments, the lime may be produced in the form of quicklime,CaO, by calcining hydrated lime or limestone in an electric kiln poweredby renewable electricity sources, and without burning fossil fuels. Insome embodiments, the lime may be produced in the form of quicklime,CaO, by calcining the limestone in a kiln which does burn fossil fuelsand creates CO₂, but where a substantial amount of said CO₂ is capturedand stored or sequestered or used so it is not emitted to theatmosphere.

In some embodiments, the cement may include pozzolan. A pozzolan istypically a silicate or aluminosilicate mineral, either naturallyoccurring or synthesized (man-made). It may be any silicate-bearingmaterial that is capable of reacting with lime to set and harden, withor without the presence of water, to form a cement or concrete.According to various embodiments, decarbonized lime as described in anypreceding embodiment reacts with said pozzolan and water in a“pozzolanic reaction” that creates calcium silicate hydrate as ahydration product. Optionally, said reaction may also create otherhydrated phases including but not limited to calcium aluminosilicatehydrate and/or sodium aluminosilicate hydrate phases.

In various embodiments, one or more types of pozzolan may be used in thecement composition. Specific natural or artificial pozzolans that may beused in this cement composition include: Slag (blast furnace slag, steelslag, basic oxygen furnace slag), coal ash (fly ash Class C and F,bottom ash, economizer ash, ponded ash), municipal solid wasteincinerator ash, silica fume, calcined clay, calcined shale, metakaolin,volcanic tuffs, moler, gaize, ground pumice, diatomaceous earths,biomass ash (rice husk ash, sugar cane ash), ground glass, andhalloysite. The pozzolan may be in the form of solid particles withmajor diameters between 1 nm and 1 mm. The most typical pozzolanparticle’s major diameter range may be 500 nm - 30 micron. The pozzolanmay comprise a dry powder, or a suspension of pozzolan particles inwater or in an aqueous solution such as in a sodium hydroxide solution.The cement blend must contain at least 1% by mass of the pozzolan. Mosttypically the cement blend may contain 10 - 80% by mass of pozzolan.

In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be a naturally occurring materialthat does not incur additional CO₂ emissions in creating its chemicalform. In some embodiments, the pozzolan may be a byproduct or wasteproduct of an industrial process carried out primarily for a purposeother than the production of cement or concrete. Accordingly, the supplyof such byproduct or waste product for use in the compositions andmethods of the various embodiments does not result in the emission ofsubstantial additional CO₂ to the atmosphere associated with thesynthesis of such byproduct or waste product. In some embodiments, thepozzolan may be produced using a process that does not result insubstantial CO₂ emissions to the atmosphere, such as by calcining clayin an electric calciner or kiln powered by renewable electricitysources.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have one or more of thefollowing attributes, including combinations and variations of thefollowing.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a specific surface area ofat least 0.01 m²/g, 0.05 m²/g, 0.1 m²/g, 0.3 m²/g, 0.5 m²/g, 0.7 m²/g, 1m²/g, 2 m²/g, 3 m²/g, 4 m²/g, 5 m²/g, 6 m²/g, 7 m²/g, 8 m²/g, 9 m²/g, 10m²/g, 12 m²/g, 15 m²/g, 20 m²/g, 25 m²/g, 30 m²/g, 35 m²/g, 40 m²/g, 45m²/g, 50 m²/g, 60 m²/g, 70 m²/g, 80 m²/g, 90 m²/g, 100 m²/g, 120 m²/g,150 m²/g, 200 m²/g, 300 m²/g, 400 m²/g, 500 m²/g, 700 m²/g, or 1000 m²/gas measured using a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) technique. In variousembodiments, the pozzolan may have a specific surface area of about 0.01m²/g, 0.05 m²/g, 0.1 m²/g, 0.3 m²/g, 0.5 m²/g, 0.7 m²/g, 1 m²/g, 2 m²/g,3 m²/g, 4 m²/g, 5 m²/g, 6 m²/g, 7 m²/g, 8 m²/g, 9 m²/g, 10 m²/g, 12m²/g, 15 m²/g, 20 m²/g, 25 m²/g, 30 m²/g, 35 m²/g, 40 m²/g, 45 m²/g, 50m²/g, 60 m²/g, 70 m²/g, 80 m²/g, 90 m²/g, 100 m²/g, 120 m²/g, 150 m²/g,200 m²/g, 300 m²/g, 400 m²/g, 500 m²/g, 700 m²/g, 1000 m²/g, or0.01-1000 m²/g as measured using a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET)technique.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a specific surface area ofless than 0.01 m²/g, 0.05 m²/g, 0.1 m²/g, 0.3 m²/g, 0.5 m²/g, 0.7 m²/g,1 m²/g, 2 m²/g, 3 m²/g, 4 m²/g, 5 m²/g, 6 m²/g, 7 m²/g, 8 m²/g, 9 m²/g,10 m²/g, 12 m²/g, 15 m²/g, 20 m²/g, 25 m²/g, 30 m²/g, 35 m²/g, 40 m²/g,45 m²/g, 50 m²/g, 60 m²/g, 70 m²/g, 80 m²/g, 90 m²/g, 100 m²/g, 120m²/g, 150 m²/g, 200 m²/g, 300 m²/g, 400 m²/g, 500 m²/g, 700 m²/g, or1000 m²/g as measured using a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) technique.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a micropore volume and/ora Barrett, Joyner and Halenda (BJH) pore volume of at least 0.01 mL/g,0.02 mL/g, 0.03 mL/g, 0.04 mL/g, 0.05 mL/g, 0.06 mL/g, 0.07 mL/g, 0.08mL/g, 0.09 mL/g, 0.10 mL/g, 0.11 mL/g, 0.12 mL/g, 0.13 mL/g, 0.14 mL/g,0.15 mL/g, 0.16 mL/g, 0.17 mL/g, 0.18 mL/g, 0.19 mL/g, 0.20 mL/g, 0.25mL/g, 0.30 mL/g, 0.40 mL/g, 0.50 mL/g, 0.60 mL/g, 0.70 mL/g, 0.80 mL/g,0.90 mL/g, 1.00 mL/g, 1.2 mL/g, 1.4 mL/g, 1.6 mL/g, 1.8 mL/g, 2 mL/g, 3mL/g, 4 mL/g, 5 mL/g, 6 mL/g, 7 mL/g, 8 mL/g, 9 mL/g, 10 mL/g, 20 mL/g,30 mL/g, 40 mL/g, or 50 mL/g. In various embodiments, the pozzolan mayhave a micropore volume and/or a Barrett, Joyner and Halenda (BJH) porevolume of at least 0.01 mL/g, 0.02 mL/g, 0.03 mL/g, 0.04 mL/g, 0.05mL/g, 0.06 mL/g, 0.07 mL/g, 0.08 mL/g, 0.09 mL/g, 0.10 mL/g, 0.11 mL/g,0.12 mL/g, 0.13 mL/g, 0.14 mL/g, 0.15 mL/g, 0.16 mL/g, 0.17 mL/g, 0.18mL/g, 0.19 mL/g, 0.20 mL/g, 0.25 mL/g, 0.30 mL/g, 0.40 mL/g, 0.50 mL/g,0.60 mL/g, 0.70 mL/g, 0.80 mL/g, 0.90 mL/g, 1.00 mL/g, 1.2 mL/g, 1.4mL/g, 1.6 mL/g, 1.8 mL/g, 2 mL/g, 3 mL/g, 4 mL/g, 5 mL/g, 6 mL/g, 7mL/g, 8 mL/g, 9 mL/g, 10 mL/g, 20 mL/g, 30 mL/g, 40 mL/g, 50 mL/g, or0.01-50 mL/g.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a micropore volume and/ora Barrett, Joyner and Halenda (BJH) pore volume of less than 0.01 mL/g,0.02 mL/g, 0.03 mL/g, 0.04 mL/g, 0.05 mL/g, 0.06 mL/g, 0.07 mL/g, 0.08mL/g, 0.09 mL/g, 0.10 mL/g, 0.11 mL/g, 0.12 mL/g, 0.13 mL/g, 0.14 mL/g,0.15 mL/g, 0.16 mL/g, 0.17 mL/g, 0.18 mL/g, 0.19 mL/g, 0.20 mL/g, 0.25mL/g, 0.30 mL/g, 0.40 mL/g, 0.50 mL/g, 0.60 mL/g, 0.70 mL/g, 0.80 mL/g,0.90 mL/g, 1.00 mL/g, 1.2 mL/g, 1.4 mL/g, 1.6 mL/g, 1.8 mL/g, 2 mL/g, 3mL/g, 4 mL/g, 5 mL/g, 6 mL/g, 7 mL/g, 8 mL/g, 9 mL/g, 10 mL/g, 20 mL/g,30 mL/g, 40 mL/g, or 50 mL/g.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a Blaine fineness(air-permeability specific surface area) of at least 0.01 m²/g, 0.05m²/g, 0.1 m²/g, 0.3 m²/g, 0.5 m²/g, 0.7 m²/g, 1 m²/g, 2 m²/g, 3 m²/g, 4m²/g, 5 m²/g, 6 m²/g, 7 m²/g, 8 m²/g, 9 m²/g, 10 m²/g, 12 m²/g, 15 m²/g,20 m²/g, 25 m²/g, 30 m²/g, 35 m²/g, 40 m²/g, 45 m²/g, 50 m²/g, 60 m²/g,70 m²/g, 80 m²/g, 90 m²/g, 100 m²/g, 120 m²/g, 150 m²/g, 200 m²/g, 300m²/g, 400 m²/g, 500 m²/g, 700 m²/g, or 1000 m²/g as measured using themethod and apparatus described in ASTM C204: Test Methods for Finenessof Hydraulic Cement by Air-Permeability Apparatus. In variousembodiments, the pozzolan may have a Blaine fineness (air-permeabilityspecific surface area) of about 0.01 m²/g, 0.05 m²/g, 0.1 m²/g, 0.3m²/g, 0.5 m²/g, 0.7 m²/g, 1 m²/g, 2 m²/g, 3 m²/g, 4 m²/g, 5 m²/g, 6m²/g, 7 m²/g, 8 m²/g, 9 m²/g, 10 m²/g, 12 m²/g, 15 m²/g, 20 m²/g, 25m²/g, 30 m²/g, 35 m²/g, 40 m²/g, 45 m²/g, 50 m²/g, 60 m²/g, 70 m²/g, 80m²/g, 90 m²/g, 100 m²/g, 120 m²/g, 150 m²/g, 200 m²/g, 300 m²/g, 400m²/g, 500 m²/g, 700 m²/g, 1000 m²/g, or 0.01-1000 m²/g as measured usingthe method and apparatus described in ASTM C204: Test Methods forFineness of Hydraulic Cement by Air-Permeability Apparatus.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a Blaine fineness(air-permeability specific surface area) of less than 0.01 m²/g, 0.05m²/g, 0.1 m²/g, 0.3 m²/g, 0.5 m²/g, 0.7 m²/g, 1 m²/g, 2 m²/g, 3 m²/g, 4m²/g, 5 m²/g, 6 m²/g, 7 m²/g, 8 m²/g, 9 m²/g, 10 m²/g, 12 m²/g, 15 m²/g,20 m²/g, 25 m²/g, 30 m²/g, 35 m²/g, 40 m²/g, 45 m²/g, 50 m²/g, 60 m²/g,70 m²/g, 80 m²/g, 90 m²/g, 100 m²/g, 120 m²/g, 150 m²/g, 200 m²/g, 300m²/g, 400 m²/g, 500 m²/g, 700 m²/g, or 1000 m²/g as measured using themethod and apparatus described in ASTM C204: Test Methods for Finenessof Hydraulic Cement by Air-Permeability Apparatus.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a Water demand of apozzolan paste less than 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5, 0.55,0.6, 0.65, 0.7, 0.75, 0.8, 0.85, 0.9 on a weight basis to obtain asufficiently flowable colloidal suspension. The water demand isdetermined from the rheology of a colloidal suspension of pozzolan andwater compared to a reference solution. According to one method, thereference solution is ordinary portland cement as defined by ASTM C150:Specification for Portland Cement, and water as defined by ASTM C1682:Specification for Mixing Water Used in the Production of HydraulicCement Concrete, in a mass ratio of 0.4:1 parts water to cement. Forexample, the amounts used may be 100 g of ordinary portland cement and40 g of water. The reference suspension is used for calibration,preferably by one skilled in the art of cement testing. The testcolloidal suspension may be prepared by adding 100 g of dry pozzolan toa mixing container, and adding 10 g of water. This mixture may be mixedwell by hand for at least a minute, at which point the viscosity of thecolloidal suspension is compared to the reference described above. Ifthe viscosity is deemed higher than the reference solution, water may beadded in 5 g increments and mixed again for one minute. This process maybe repeated until the sample solution has the same viscosity as thereference solution prepared. The final water demand is determined bydividing the total amount of water added to the colloidal suspension bythe starting amount of dry pozzolan used.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a flow table spread of apozzolan mortar of at least 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, or 90% asmeasured using the method and apparatus described in ASTM C1437:Standard Test Method for Flow of Hydraulic Cement Mortar, using a mortarwith a ratio of 1:2.75 pozzolan to Graded Test sand as defined by ASTMC109. In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a flow table spreadof a pozzolan mortar of about 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, or20-90% as measured using the method and apparatus described in ASTMC1437: Standard Test Method for Flow of Hydraulic Cement Mortar, using amortar with a ratio of 1:2.75 pozzolan to Graded Test sand as defined byASTM C109. The mortar may be prepared using a water to dry pozzolanratio of 0.485:1 following the ratio outlined in ASTM C109, where saidwater is defined by ASTM C1682: Specification for Mixing Water Used inthe Production of Hydraulic Cement Concrete. The mortar may be mixed inaccordance with the mixing procedure included in ASTM C109: Test Methodfor Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (using 2-in. Or[50-mm] Cube Specimens).

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a water demand of apozzolan mortar less than 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5, 0.55,0.6, 0.65, 0.7, 0.75, 0.8, 0.85, 0.9 on a weight basis while obtaining aflowable colloidal suspension. The water demand of a pozzolan mortar maybe determined by preparing a mortar mix consisting of dry pozzolan andGraded Test Sand as defined by ASTM C109: Test Method for CompressiveStrength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (using 2-in. Or [50-mm] CubeSpecimens), in a 1:2.75 mass ratio. This mass ratio may be determined byASTM C109, a standard ratio of cementitious material to sand. The actualamount of dry pozzolan used may be 250 g and the actual amount of sandused may be 687.5 g. Water as defined by ASTM C1682: Specification forMixing Water Used in the Production of Hydraulic Cement Concrete, may beadded initially at a weight fraction of 0.1, or 25 g, and the mixingprocedure specified in ASTM C109 may be used to prepare the mortar. Themortar may be evaluated for flow using the method and apparatus found inASTM C1437: Standard Test Method for Flow of Hydraulic Cement Mortar. Ifthe mortar flow is less than 30%, a weight fraction of 0.05, or 12.5 g,may be added to the mortar. The mixing procedure specified in ASTM C109may be conducted again, following which the flow determination procedurefound in ASTM C1437 may be conducted. This process may be repeated untilthe sample suspension has a mortar flow greater than 30%. The finalwater demand is determined by dividing the total amount of water addedto the colloidal suspension by the starting amount of dry pozzolan used.The sand is not included in the weight determination.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have an average roughnessfactor of less than 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.75, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, or 100, where roughnessfactor is defined as the quotient of a particle’s actual surface area tovolume ratio to the surface area to volume ratio expected for a spherehaving the same volume as the actual particle.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have an average primaryparticle diameter of at least 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900micron, or 1 mm. In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have anaverage primary particle diameter of about 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm,30 nm, 50 nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2micron, 3 micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9micron, 10 micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30micron, 35 micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80micron, 90 micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250micron, 300 micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800micron, 900 micron, 1 mm, or 1 nm-1mm.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have an average primaryparticle diameter of less than 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900micron, or 1 mm.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a narrow particle sizedistribution, as defined by having at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%,95%, or 99% of all particles by count or by mass within a diameter rangehaving a width of less than 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50 nm,70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900micron, or 1 mm.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a wide particle sizedistribution, as defined by having at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%,95%, or 99% of all particles by count or by mass within a diameter rangehaving a width of at least 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50 nm,70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900micron, or 1 mm. In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a wideparticle size distribution, as defined by having at least 50%, 60%, 70%,80%, 90%, 95%, or 99% of all particles by count or by mass within adiameter range having a width of about 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30nm, 50 nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2micron, 3 micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9micron, 10 micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30micron, 35 micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80micron, 90 micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250micron, 300 micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800micron, 900 micron, 1 mm, or 1 nm-1mm.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a primary crystalmorphology with hexagonal cross-section, including the morphology of ahexagonal prism.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a minimum aspect ratio ofall particles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’s largestlinear dimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension, of atleast 1, 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,15, 20, 25, 30, 40, or 50. In various embodiments, the pozzolan may havea minimum aspect ratio of all particles, defined as the ratio of theprimary particle’s largest linear dimension to the primary particle’ssmallest dimension, of about 1, 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5,3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, or 1-50.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have an average aspect ratio ofall particles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’s largestlinear dimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension, of atleast 1, 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,15, 20, 25, 30, 40, or 50. In various embodiments, the pozzolan may havean average aspect ratio of all particles, defined as the ratio of theprimary particle’s largest linear dimension to the primary particle’ssmallest dimension, of about 1, 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5,3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, or 1-50.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a minimum aspect ratio ofall particles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’s largestlinear dimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension, of lessthan 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15,20, 25, 30, 40, or 50.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have an average aspect ratio ofall particles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’s largestlinear dimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension, of lessthan 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15,20, 25, 30, 40, or 50.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a specific surface area tomajor diameter ratio of at least 0.1 (m²/g)/micron, 0.2 (m²/g)/micron,0.3 (m²/g)/micron, 0.5 (m²/g)/micron, 0.7 (m²/g)/micron, 1(m²/g)/micron, 3 (m²/g)/micron, 5 (m²/g)/micron, 7 (m²/g)/micron, 10(m²/g)/micron, 20 (m²/g)/micron, 30 (m²/g)/micron, 40 (m²/g)/micron, 50(m²/g)/micron, 70 (m²/g)/micron, or 100 (m²/g)/micron. In variousembodiments, the pozzolan may have a specific surface area to majordiameter ratio of about 0.1 (m²/g)/micron, 0.2 (m²/g)/micron, 0.3(m²/g)/micron, 0.5 (m²/g)/micron, 0.7 (m²/g)/micron, 1 (m²/g)/micron, 3(m²/g)/micron, 5 (m²/g)/micron, 7 (m²/g)/micron, 10 (m²/g)/micron, 20(m²/g)/micron, 30 (m²/g)/micron, 40 (m²/g)/micron, 50 (m²/g)/micron, 70(m²/g)/micron, 100 (m²/g)/micron, or 0.1-100 (m²/g)/micron.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a specific surface area tomajor diameter ratio of less than 0.1 (m²/g)/micron, 0.2 (m²/g)/micron,0.3 (m²/g)/micron, 0.5 (m²/g)/micron, 0.7 (m²/g)/micron, 1(m²/g)/micron, 3 (m²/g)/micron, 5 (m²/g)/micron, 7 (m²/g)/micron, 10(m²/g)/micron, 20 (m²/g)/micron, 30 (m²/g)/micron, 40 (m²/g)/micron, 50(m²/g)/micron, 70 (m²/g)/micron, or 100 (m²/g)/micron.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a purity of at least 80%,82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9%or 99.99% by mass on the basis of silica or alumina and silica. Invarious embodiments, the pozzolan may have a purity of about 80%, 82%,84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9%,99.99%, or 80-99.99% by mass on the basis of silica or alumina andsilica.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a purity of less than 80%,82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9%or 99.99% by mass on the basis of silica or alumina and silica.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have an amorphous content of atleast 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%,5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%,45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%,94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9%, or 99.99%, by mass orvolume. In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have an amorphouscontent of about 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1 %, 1.5%,2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%,35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%,90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or0.01-99.99%, by mass or volume.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have an amorphous content ofless than 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%,4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%,40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%,92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99%, by mass orvolume.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a silica content of atleast 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%,5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%,45%, or 50% by mass. In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have asilica content of about 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, or 0.01-50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a silica content of lessthan 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a calcium carbonatecontent of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%,0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%,16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a calcium carbonatecontent of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%,0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%,16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In variousembodiments, the pozzolan may have a calcium carbonate content of about0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%,2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%,35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, or 0.001-50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a magnesium oxide contentof less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%,1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%,25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a magnesium oxide contentof at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%,1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%,25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In various embodiments, thepozzolan may have a magnesium oxide content of about 0.001%, 0.005%,0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%,6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%,50%, or 0.001-50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a magnesium oxide contentof less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%,1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%,25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a magnesium hydroxidecontent of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%,0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%,16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In variousembodiments, the pozzolan may have a magnesium hydroxide content ofabout 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45 %, 50%, or 0.001-50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a magnesium hydroxidecontent of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%,0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%,16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a calcium oxide content ofat least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In various embodiments, the pozzolanmay have a calcium oxide content of about 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%,0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%,10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, or 0.001-50%by mass.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a calcium oxide content ofless than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%,1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%,25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a chloride content of atleast 0.001%, 0.005 %, 0.01%, 0.05 %, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In various embodiments, the pozzolanmay have a chloride content of about 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05 %,0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%,10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, or 0.001-50%by mass.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a chloride content of lessthan 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a nitrate content of atleast 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In various embodiments, the pozzolanmay have a nitrate content of about 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%,0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%,12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, or 0.001-50% bymass.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a nitrate content of lessthan 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a nitrite content of atleast 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In various embodiments, the pozzolanmay have a nitrite content of about 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%,0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%,12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, or 0.001-50% bymass.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a nitrite content of lessthan 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a sulfate content of atleast 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In various embodiments, the pozzolanmay have a sulfate content of about 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%,0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%,12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, or 0.001-50% bymass.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a sulfate content of lessthan 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a sulfite content of atleast 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In various embodiments, the pozzolanmay have a sulfite content of about 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%,0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%,12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, or 0.001-50% bymass.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a sulfite content of lessthan 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a phosphate content of atleast 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In various embodiments, the pozzolanmay have a phosphate content of about 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%,0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%,10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, or 0.001-50%by mass.

In various embodiments, the pozzolan may have a phosphate content ofless than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%,1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%,25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

Without being limited by any particular theory, some of these propertiesof the pozzolan may improve its performance in cement. In particular,pozzolans with a large primary particle diameter, small specific surfacearea, and/or small micropore volume may correlate with low water demand.That is to say, these properties may mean less water must be added tocement containing such pozzolan or pozzolans in order to achievesufficiently high flow, large slump, or low viscosity. This may bebecause particles with large primary particle diameter, small specificsurface area, and/or small micropore volume adsorb or absorb smalleramounts of water, have smaller surface friction, have smaller viscousforces in suspension, or for other related reasons. Cements and/orconcretes with lower water demand may perform better because they canhave sufficient flow, slump, or viscosity to be cast, pumped, or pouredas needed to meet the requirements of a particular application, whilehaving less water added to the blend. Adding less water to the blend mayresult in higher compressive strength and/or shorter setting times. Thismay be because adding less water leads to lower pore volume in thehydrated, set, and/or hardened cement, mortar, or concrete, and reducedpore volume is correlated with increased compressive strength. Inaddition, particles with certain diameters or diameter distributions mayenable higher packing efficiency or filling in of gaps or voids betweenparticles or aggregates in cement or concrete, resulting in a densermaterial with higher compressive strength. Cements, mortars, orconcretes made with lower water to binder ratios may also have lowerpermeability due to lower porosity and a less interconnected porestructure (more closed and isolated pores), and therefore may resistpenetration by chlorides, sulfates, or other ionic or molecular speciesthat could lead to degradation of building materials or structures.

In any of the preceding embodiments, the cement blend may optionallyinclude one or more of the following additional components, such as oneor more of: portland cement; set accelerating additives; gypsum; calciumcarbonate; water reducing additives; flocculants; dispersants;defoamers; air entraining admixtures; alite (tricalcium silicate);and/or calcium aluminate cement, calcium sulfoaluminate cements, and/oror constituents thereof. Such additional components are discussed inmore detail below.

In some embodiments, the cement comprises portland cement. Some portlandcement may be used in the cement blend. This portland cement itself ishydraulic and sets and hardens over time. The portland cement may beadded to the lime / pozzolan blend to serve as an alkali activator(portland cement contains some sodium oxide and potassium oxide, causingit to reach pH values of 13-13.5 when mixed with water). The portlandcement may be added to speed up the setting and hardening of the cementcompared to lime/pozzolan blends with no portland cement. The portlandcement may be added to otherwise modify the fresh (unhardened) and/orhardened properties of the cement. Portland cement may be used inquantities of 0% - 98% by mass of the blend. Most typically, theportland cement content may be between 0 - 40%.

In some embodiments, the cement comprises set accelerating additives.Chemical components may be added to the cement blend for the purpose ofaccelerating the setting time and strength development during hardening.These may include, without limitation, sodium hydroxide, calciumchloride, sodium sulfate, sodium nitrate, calcium nitrite, calciumnitrate,sodium silicate, sodium thiocyante, sodium lactate,triethanolamine, diethanolamine, triisopropanolamine,N,N,N′,N′-Tetrakis(2-hydroxyethyl)ethylenediamine, nanoparticulateportland cement, nanoparticulate calcium silicate hydrate,nanoparticulate limestone, or nanoparticulate lime. These additives maybe used to affect the speed and extent of the pozzolanic reaction, andtherefore affect the fresh and hardened properties of the cement. Insome embodiments such additives may be used to shorten the setting time,or to increase the compressive strength, of the cement or concrete.These set accelerating admixtures may be added in quantities rangingfrom 0 - 25% by mass of the cement blend.

In some embodiments, the cement comprises gypsum. This mineral isprimarily composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate. Gypsum is routinelymixed with clinker to make portland cement. Gypsum may slow down thehydration reactions of the aluminum- and iron-containing components ofportland cement to prevent “flash setting.” Gypsum may be added to thelime/pozzolan cement described here for a similar purpose. Gypsum mayalso be added to aid in the formation of sulfate-containing hardenedphases such as ettringite, therefore contributing to the strength ofhardened cement. Gypsum may be added or to otherwise modify the fresh orhardened properties of the cement. Gypsum may be added in quantitiesranging from 0 - 25% by mass of the cement blend.

In some embodiments, the cement comprises calcium carbonate from asource such as limestone. Limestone is a mineral primarily composed ofcalcium carbonate. Limestone or other sources of calcium carbonate maybe added to act as an inexpensive, carbon-free inert filler that savescost without decreasing the performance of the cement. Calcium carbonatemay also be added to react with the pozzolan. In some cases, the calciumcarbonate may react with the aluminum-containing phases of the pozzolanto produce carboaluminate hardened phases which contribute to thestrength and other performance characteristics of the hardened cement.The calcium carbonate may also be added to otherwise modify the fresh orhardened properties of the cement. In some embodiments, the calciumcarbonate may be a ground or milled limestone. In some embodiments, thecalcium carbonate may be a precipitated calcium carbonate. In someembodiments, precipitated calcium carbonate may be smoother, lessangular, have smaller surface area/volume ratio, or have other physicalor chemical differences compared to ground limestone. In someembodiments, precipitated calcium carbonate may have lower water demand(amount of water required to generate cement paste, cement mortar,concrete, or similar products with sufficient flow) compared to groundlimestone. Calcium carbonate may be added in quantities ranging from 0 -60% by mass of the cement blend.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have one or more of thefollowing attributes, including combinations and variations of thefollowing.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a specific surfacearea of at least 0.01 m²/g, 0.05 m²/g, 0.1 m²/g, 0.3 m²/g, 0.5 m²/g, 0.7m²/g, 1 m²/g, 2 m²/g, 3 m²/g, 4 m²/g, 5 m²/g, 6 m²/g, 7 m²/g, 8 m²/g, 9m²/g, 10 m²/g, 12 m²/g, 15 m²/g, 20 m²/g, 25 m²/g, 30 m²/g, 35 m²/g, 40m²/g, 45 m²/g, 50 m²/g, 60 m²/g, 70 m²/g, 80 m²/g, 90 m²/g, 100 m²/g,120 m²/g, 150 m²/g, 200 m²/g, 300 m²/g, 400 m²/g, 500 m²/g, 700 m²/g, or1000 m²/g as measured using a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) technique. Insome embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a specific surface areaof about 0.01 m²/g, 0.05 m²/g, 0.1 m²/g, 0.3 m²/g, 0.5 m²/g, 0.7 m²/g, 1m²/g, 2 m²/g, 3 m²/g, 4 m²/g, 5 m²/g, 6 m²/g, 7 m²/g, 8 m²/g, 9 m²/g, 10m²/g, 12 m²/g, 15 m²/g, 20 m²/g, 25 m²/g, 30 m²/g, 35 m²/g, 40 m²/g, 45m²/g, 50 m²/g, 60 m²/g, 70 m²/g, 80 m²/g, 90 m²/g, 100 m²/g, 120 m²/g,150 m²/g, 200 m²/g, 300 m²/g, 400 m²/g, 500 m²/g, 700 m²/g, 1000 m²/g or0.01-1000 m²/g as measured using a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET)technique.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a specific surfacearea of less than 0.01 m²/g, 0.05 m²/g, 0.1 m²/g, 0.3 m²/g, 0.5 m²/g,0.7 m²/g, 1 m²/g, 2 m²/g, 3 m²/g, 4 m²/g, 5 m²/g, 6 m²/g, 7 m²/g, 8m²/g, 9 m²/g, 10 m²/g, 12 m²/g, 15 m²/g, 20 m²/g, 25 m²/g, 30 _(m) ²/g,35 _(m) ²/g, 40 _(m) ²/g, 45 _(m) ²/g, 50 _(m) ²/g, 60 _(m) ²/g, 70 _(m)²/g, 80 _(m) ²/g, 90 _(m) ²/g, 100 m²/g, 120 _(m) ²/g, 150 m²/g, 200m²/g, 300 m²/g, 400 m²/g, 500 m²/g, 700 m²/g, or 1000 m²/g as measuredusing a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) technique.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a micropore volumeand/or a Barrett, Joyner and Halenda (BJH) pore volume of at least 0.01mL/g, 0.02 mL/g, 0.03 mL/g, 0.04 mL/g, 0.05 mL/g, 0.06 mL/g, 0.07 mL/g,0.08 mL/g, 0.09 mL/g, 0.10 mL/g, 0.11 mL/g, 0.12 mL/g, 0.13 mL/g, 0.14mL/g, 0.15 mL/g, 0.16 mL/g, 0.17 mL/g, 0.18 mL/g, 0.19 mL/g, 0.20 mL/g,0.25 mL/g, 0.30 mL/g, 0.40 mL/g, 0.50 mL/g, 0.60 mL/g, 0.70 mL/g, 0.80mL/g, 0.90 mL/g, 1.00 mL/g, 1.2 mL/g, 1.4 mL/g, 1.6 mL/g, 1.8 mL/g, 2mL/g, 3 mL/g, 4 mL/g, 5 mL/g, 6 mL/g, 7 mL/g, 8 mL/g, 9 mL/g, 10 mL/g,20 mL/g, 30 mL/g, 40 mL/g, or 50 mL/g. In some embodiments, the calciumcarbonate may have a micropore volume and/or a Barrett, Joyner andHalenda (BJH) pore volume of about 0.01 mL/g, 0.02 mL/g, 0.03 mL/g, 0.04mL/g, 0.05 mL/g, 0.06 mL/g, 0.07 mL/g, 0.08 mL/g, 0.09 mL/g, 0.10 mL/g,0.11 mL/g, 0.12 mL/g, 0.13 mL/g, 0.14 mL/g, 0.15 mL/g, 0.16 mL/g, 0.17mL/g, 0.18 mL/g, 0.19 mL/g, 0.20 mL/g, 0.25 mL/g, 0.30 mL/g, 0.40 mL/g,0.50 mL/g, 0.60 mL/g, 0.70 mL/g, 0.80 mL/g, 0.90 mL/g, 1.00 mL/g, 1.2mL/g, 1.4 mL/g, 1.6 mL/g, 1.8 mL/g, 2 mL/g, 3 mL/g, 4 mL/g, 5 mL/g, 6mL/g, 7 mL/g, 8 mL/g, 9 mL/g, 10 mL/g, 20 mL/g, 30 mL/g, 40 mL/g, 50mL/g, or 0.01-50 mL/g.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a micropore volumeand/or a Barrett, Joyner and Halenda (BJH) pore volume of less than 0.01mL/g, 0.02 mL/g, 0.03 mL/g, 0.04 mL/g, 0.05 mL/g, 0.06 mL/g, 0.07 mL/g,0.08 mL/g, 0.09 mL/g, 0.10 mL/g, 0.11 mL/g, 0.12 mL/g, 0.13 mL/g, 0.14mL/g, 0.15 mL/g, 0.16 mL/g, 0.17 mL/g, 0.18 mL/g, 0.19 mL/g, 0.20 mL/g,0.25 mL/g, 0.30 mL/g, 0.40 mL/g, 0.50 mL/g, 0.60 mL/g, 0.70 mL/g, 0.80mL/g, 0.90 mL/g, 1.00 mL/g, 1.2 mL/g, 1.4 mL/g, 1.6 mL/g, 1.8 mL/g, 2mL/g, 3 mL/g, 4 mL/g, 5 mL/g, 6 mL/g, 7 mL/g, 8 mL/g, 9 mL/g, 10 mL/g,20 mL/g, 30 mL/g, 40 mL/g, or 50 mL/g.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a Blaine fineness(air-permeability specific surface area) of at least 0.01 m²/g, 0.05m²/g, 0.1 m²/g, 0.3 m²/g, 0.5 m²/g, 0.7 m²/g, 1 m²/g, 2 m²/g, 3 m²/g, 4m²/g, 5 m²/g, 6 m²/g, 7 m²/g, 8 m²/g, 9 m²/g, 10 m²/g, 12 m²/g, 15 m²/g,20 m²/g, 25 m²/g, 30 m²/g, 35 m²/g, 40 m²/g, 45 m²/g, 50 m²/g, 60 m²/g,70 m²/g, 80 m²/g, 90 m²/g, 100 m²/g, 120 m²/g, 150 m²/g, 200 m²/g, 300m²/g, 400 m²/g, 500 m²/g, 700 m²/g, or 1000 m²/g as measured using themethod and apparatus described in ASTM C204: Test Methods for Finenessof Hydraulic Cement by Air-Permeability Apparatus. In some embodiments,the calcium carbonate may have a Blaine fineness (air-permeabilityspecific surface area) of about 0.01 m²/g, 0.05 m²/g, 0.1 m²/g, 0.3m²/g, 0.5 m²/g, 0.7 m²/g, 1 m²/g, 2 m²/g, 3 m²/g, 4 m²/g, 5 m²/g, 6m²/g, 7 m²/g, 8 m²/g, 9 m²/g, 10 m²/g, 12 m²/g, 15 m²/g, 20 m²/g, 25m²/g, 30 m²/g, 35 m²/g, 40 m²/g, 45 m²/g, 50 m²/g, 60 m²/g, 70 m²/g, 80m²/g, 90 m²/g, 100 m²/g, 120 m²/g, 150 m²/g, 200 m²/g, 300 m²/g, 400m²/g, 500 m²/g, 700 m²/g, 1000 m²/g, or 0.01-1000 m²/g as measured usingthe method and apparatus described in ASTM C204: Test Methods forFineness of Hydraulic Cement by Air-Permeability Apparatus.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a Blaine fineness(air-permeability specific surface area) of less than 0.01 m²/g, 0.05m²/g, 0.1 m²/g, 0.3 m²/g, 0.5 m²/g, 0.7 m²/g, 1 m²/g, 2 m²/g, 3 m²/g, 4m²/g, 5 m²/g, 6 m²/g, 7 m²/g, 8 m²/g, 9 m²/g, 10 m²/g, 12 m²/g, 15 m²/g,20 m²/g, 25 m²/g, 30 m²/g, 35 m²/g, 40 m²/g, 45 m²/g, 50 m²/g, 60 m²/g,70 m²/g, 80 m²/g, 90 m²/g, 100 m²/g, 120 m²/g, 150 m²/g, 200 m²/g, 300m²/g, 400 m²/g, 500 m²/g, 700 m²/g, or 1000 m²/g as measured using themethod and apparatus described in ASTM C204: Test Methods for Finenessof Hydraulic Cement by Air-Permeability Apparatus.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a water demand of alimestone paste less than 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5, 0.55,0.6, 0.65, 0.7, 0.75, 0.8, 0.85, 0.9 on a weight basis to obtain asufficiently flowable colloidal suspension. The water demand isdetermined from the rheology of a colloidal suspension of limestone andwater compared to a reference solution. According to one method, thereference solution is ordinary portland cement as defined by ASTM C150:Specification for Portland Cement, and water as defined by ASTM C1682:Specification for Mixing Water Used in the Production of HydraulicCement Concrete, in a mass ratio of 0.4:1 parts water to cement. Forexample, the amounts used may be 100 g of ordinary portland cement and40 g of water. The reference suspension is used for calibration,preferably by one skilled in the art of cement testing. The testcolloidal suspension may be prepared by adding 100 g of dry limestone toa mixing container, and adding 10 g of water. This mixture may be mixedwell by hand for at least a minute, at which point the viscosity of thecolloidal suspension is compared to the reference described above. Ifthe viscosity is deemed higher than the reference solution, water may beadded in 5 g increments and mixed again for one minute. This process maybe repeated until the sample solution has the same viscosity as thereference solution prepared. The final water demand is determined bydividing the total amount of water added to the colloidal suspension bythe starting amount of dry limestone used.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a flow table spreadof a limestone mortar of at least 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, or90% as measured using the method and apparatus described in ASTM C1437:Standard Test Method for Flow of Hydraulic Cement Mortar, using a mortarwith a ratio of 1:2.75 limestone to Graded Test sand as defined by ASTMC109. In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a flow tablespread of a limestone mortar of about 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%,90%, or 20-90% as measured using the method and apparatus described inASTM C1437: Standard Test Method for Flow of Hydraulic Cement Mortar,using a mortar with a ratio of 1:2.75 limestone to Graded Test sand asdefined by ASTM C109. The mortar may be prepared using a water to drylimestone ratio of 0.485:1 following the ratio outlined in ASTM C109,where said water is defined by ASTM C1682: Specification for MixingWater Used in the Production of Hydraulic Cement Concrete. The mortarmay be mixed in accordance with the mixing procedure included in ASTMC109: Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars(using 2-in. Or [50-mm] Cube Specimens).

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a water demand of alimestone mortar less than 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5, 0.55,0.6, 0.65, 0.7, 0.75, 0.8, 0.85, 0.9 on a weight basis while obtaining aflowable colloidal suspension. The water demand of a limestone mortarmay be determined by preparing a mortar mix consisting of dry limestoneand Graded Test Sand as defined by ASTM C109: Test Method forCompressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (using 2-in. Or [50-mm]Cube Specimens), in a 1:2.75 mass ratio. This mass ratio may bedetermined by ASTM C109, a standard ratio of cementitious material tosand. The actual amount of dry limestone used may be 250 g and theactual amount of sand used may be 687.5 g. Water as defined by ASTMC1682: Specification for Mixing Water Used in the Production ofHydraulic Cement Concrete, may be added initially at a weight fractionof 0.1, or 25 g, and the mixing procedure specified in ASTM C109 may beused to prepare the mortar. The mortar may be evaluated for flow usingthe method and apparatus found in ASTM C1437: Standard Test Method forFlow of Hydraulic Cement Mortar. If the mortar flow is less than 30%, aweight fraction of 0.05, or 12.5 g, may be added to the mortar. Themixing procedure specified in ASTM C109 may be conducted again,following which the flow determination procedure found in ASTM C1437 maybe conducted. This process may be repeated until the sample suspensionhas a mortar flow greater than 30%. The final water demand is determinedby dividing the total amount of water added to the colloidal suspensionby the starting amount of dry limestone used. The sand is not includedin the weight determination.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have an average roughnessfactor of less than 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.75, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, or 100, where roughnessfactor is defined as the quotient of a particle’s actual surface area tovolume ratio to the surface area to volume ratio expected for a spherehaving the same volume as the actual particle.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have an average primaryparticle diameter of at least 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900micron, or 1 mm. In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have anaverage primary particle diameter of about 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm,30 nm, 50 nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2micron, 3 micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9micron, 10 micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30micron, 35 micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80micron, 90 micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250micron, 300 micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800micron, 900 micron, 1 mm, or 1 nm-1mm.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have an average primaryparticle diameter of less than 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900micron, or 1 mm.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a narrow particlesize distribution, as defined by having at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%,90%, 95%, or 99% of all particles by count or by mass within a diameterrange having a width of less than 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm,50 nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2micron, 3 micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9micron, 10 micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30micron, 35 micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80micron, 90 micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250micron, 300 micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800micron, 900 micron, or 1 mm.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a wide particle sizedistribution, as defined by having at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%,95%, or 99% of all particles by count or by mass within a diameter rangehaving a width of at least 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30 nm, 50 nm,70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2 micron, 3micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9 micron, 10micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30 micron, 35micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80 micron, 90micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250 micron, 300micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800 micron, 900micron, or 1 mm. In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have awide particle size distribution, as defined by having at least 50%, 60%,70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 99% of all particles by count or by mass within adiameter range having a width of about 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm 5 nm, 10 nm, 30nm, 50 nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 500 nm, 700 nm, 1 micron, 2micron, 3 micron, 4 micron, 5 micron, 6 micron, 7 micron, 8 micron, 9micron, 10 micron, 12 micron, 15 micron, 20 micron, 25 micron, 30micron, 35 micron, 40 micron, 50 micron, 60 micron, 70 micron, 80micron, 90 micron, 100 micron, 120 micron, 150 micron, 200 micron, 250micron, 300 micron, 400 micron, 500 micron, 600 micron, 700 micron, 800micron, 900 micron, 1 mm, or 1 nm-1mm.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a primary crystalmorphology with hexagonal cross-section, including the morphology of ahexagonal prism.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a minimum aspectratio of all particles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’slargest linear dimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension,of at least 1, 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, or 50. In some embodiments, the calciumcarbonate may have a minimum aspect ratio of all particles, defined asthe ratio of the primary particle’s largest linear dimension to theprimary particle’s smallest dimension, of about 1, 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3,1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, or1-50.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have an average aspectratio of all particles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’slargest linear dimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension,of at least 1, 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, or 50. In some embodiments, the calciumcarbonate may have an average aspect ratio of all particles, defined asthe ratio of the primary particle’s largest linear dimension to theprimary particle’s smallest dimension, of about 1, 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3,1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, or1-50.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a minimum aspectratio of all particles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’slargest linear dimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension,of less than 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, or 50.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have an average aspectratio of all particles, defined as the ratio of the primary particle’slargest linear dimension to the primary particle’s smallest dimension,of less than 1.05, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, or 50.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have an amorphous contentof at least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%,3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%,40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%,92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99%, by mass orvolume. In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have an amorphouscontent of about 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%,2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%,35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%,90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or0.01-99.99% by mass or volume.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have an amorphous contentof less than 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%,3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%,40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%,92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99%, by mass orvolume.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a specific surfacearea to major diameter ratio of at least 0.1 (m²/g)/micron, 0.2(m²/g)/micron, 0.3 (m²/g)/micron, 0.5 (m²/g)/micron, 0.7 (m²/g)/micron,1 (m²/g)/micron, 3 (m²/g)/micron, 5 (m²/g)/micron, 7 (m²/g)/micron, 10(m²/g)/micron, 20 (m²/g)/micron, 30 (m²/g)/micron, 40 (m²/g)/micron, 50(m²/g)/micron, 70 (m²/g)/micron, or 100 (m²/g)/micron. In someembodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a specific surface area tomajor diameter ratio of about 0.1 (m²/g)/micron, 0.2 (m²/g)/micron, 0.3(m²/g)/micron, 0.5 (m²/g)/micron, 0.7 (m²/g)/micron, 1 (m²/g)/micron, 3(m²/g)/micron, 5 (m²/g)/micron, 7 (m²/g)/micron, 10 (m²/g)/micron, 20(m²/g)/micron, 30 (m²/g)/micron, 40 (m²/g)/micron, 50 (m²/g)/micron, 70(m²/g)/micron, 100 (m²/g)/micron, or 0.1-100 (m²/g)/micron.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a specific surfacearea to major diameter ratio of less than 0.1 (m²/g)/micron, 0.2(m²/g)/micron, 0.3 (m²/g)/micron, 0.5 (m²/g)/micron, 0.7 (m²/g)/micron,1 (m²/g)/micron, 3 (m²/g)/micron, 5 (m²/g)/micron, 7 (m²/g)/micron, 10(m²/g)/micron, 20 (m²/g)/micron, 30 (m²/g)/micron, 40 (m²/g)/micron, 50(m²/g)/micron, 70 (m²/g)/micron, or 100 (m²/g)/micron.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a purity of at least80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%,99.9% or 99.99% by mass calcium carbonate. In some embodiments, thecalcium carbonate may have a purity of about 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%,90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or80-99.99% by mass calcium carbonate.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a purity of lessthan 80%, 82%, 84%, 86%, 88%, 90%, 92%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%,99.5%, 99.9% or 99.99% by mass calcium carbonate.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a silica content ofat least 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%,4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%,40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate mayhave a silica content of about 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%,0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%,20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 0.01-50% by mass.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a silica content ofless than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%,1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%,25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a calcium carbonatecontent of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%,0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%,16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a calcium carbonatecontent of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%,0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%,16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In someembodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a calcium carbonate contentof about 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 0.001-50% by mass.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a magnesium oxidecontent of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%,0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%,16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a magnesium oxidecontent of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%,0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%,16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In someembodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a magnesium oxide content ofabout 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 0.001-50% by mass.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a magnesium oxidecontent of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%,0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%,16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a magnesiumhydroxide content of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%,0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%,14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In someembodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a magnesium hydroxidecontent of about 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%,0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%,20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 0.001-50% by mass.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a magnesiumhydroxide content of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%,0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%,14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a calcium oxidecontent of at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%,0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%,16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In someembodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a calcium oxide content ofabout 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 0.001-50% by mass.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a calcium oxidecontent of less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%,0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%,16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a chloride contentof at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%,1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%,25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In some embodiments, thecalcium carbonate may have a chloride content of about 0.001%, 0.005%,0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%,6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%,50%, 0.001-50% by mass.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a chloride contentof less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%,1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%,25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a nitrate content ofat least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In some embodiments, the calciumcarbonate may have a nitrate content of about 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%,0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%,8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%,0.001-50% by mass.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a nitrate content ofless than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%,1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%,25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a nitrite content ofat least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In some embodiments, the calciumcarbonate may have a nitrite content of about 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%,0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%,8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%,0.001-50% by mass.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a nitrite content ofless than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%,1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%,25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a sulfate content ofat least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In some embodiments, the calciumcarbonate may have a sulfate content of about 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%,0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%,8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%,0.001-50% by mass.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a sulfate content ofless than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%,1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%,25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a sulfite content ofat least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%,1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%,30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In some embodiments, the calciumcarbonate may have a sulfite content of about 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%,0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%,8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%,0.001-50% by mass.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a sulfite content ofless than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%,1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%,25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a phosphate contentof at least 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%,1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%,25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass. In some embodiments, thecalcium carbonate may have a phosphate content of about 0.001%, 0.005%,0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%,6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%,50%, 0.001-50% by mass.

In some embodiments, the calcium carbonate may have a phosphate contentof less than 0.001%, 0.005%, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%,1 %, 1.5%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%,25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% by mass.

Without being limited by any particular theory, some of these propertiesof the limestone may improve its performance in cement. In particular,limestone with a large primary particle diameter, small specific surfacearea, and/or small micropore volume may correlate with low water demand.That is to say, these properties may mean less water must be added tocement containing such limestone in order to achieve sufficiently highflow, large slump, or low viscosity. This may be because particles withlarge primary particle diameter, small specific surface area, and/orsmall micropore volume adsorb or absorb smaller amounts of water, havesmaller surface friction, have smaller viscous forces in suspension, orfor other related reasons. Cements and/or concretes with lower waterdemand may perform better because they can have sufficient flow, slump,or viscosity to be cast, pumped, or poured as needed to meet therequirements of a particular application, while having less water addedto the blend. Adding less water to the blend may result in highercompressive strength and/or shorter setting times. This may be becauseadding less water leads to lower pore volume in the hydrated, set,and/or hardened cement, mortar, or concrete, and reduced pore volume iscorrelated with increased compressive strength. In addition, particleswith certain diameters or diameter distributions may enable higherpacking efficiency or filling in of gaps or voids between particles oraggregates in cement or concrete, resulting in a denser material withhigher compressive strength. Cements, mortars, or concretes made withlower water to binder ratios may also have lower permeability due tolower porosity and a less interconnected pore structure (more closed andisolated pores), and therefore may resist penetration by chlorides,sulfates, or other ionic or molecular species that could lead todegradation of building materials or structures.

In some embodiments, the cement comprises water reducing additives.Water reducing admixtures may be added to reduce the amount of waterthat must be mixed into the cement, mortar, or concrete of the variousembodiments to achieve sufficient flow. These may include withoutlimitation Type A, Water-reducing admixtures, Type D-water reducing andretarding admixtures, Type E-water reducing and accelerating admixtures,Type F-water-reducing, high range admixtures, Type G-water-reducing,high range, and retarding admixtures, as defined in ASTM C494,“Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete.” These may includesuperplasticizers such as polycarboxylate and/or naphthalene-basedsuperplasticizers. These water reducing additives may be blended intothe cement, mortar, or concrete as a dry powder, or they may be added tothe cement, mortar, or concrete as solution in water or another solvent.These additives may be added in quantities ranging from 0 - 20% by massof the cement blend on the basis of the additive solid mass. Mosttypically the additives will be 0 - 1% solids on the basis of mass ofthe cement blend.

In some embodiments, the cement comprises flocculants and/ordispersants. Flocculants or dispersants may be added to change thecolloidal behavior of the cement, mortar, or concrete of the variousembodiments to achieve certain flow characteristics. If the suspensionis determined to have excessive flocculation which may cause issues withmixing, segregation of cementitious phases, or other deleteriouseffects, a dispersant may be added to promote the breakup of these flocsand homogenize the colloidal suspension. If instead the suspension isdetermined to be too dispersed, a flocculant may be added to induceformation of flocs. This can be desired to increase the volume of waterin between solids, or cause settling of the suspended solids for alarger degree of compaction. These additives may be added in quantitiesranging from 0 - 20% by mass of the cement blend on the basis of theadditive solid mass. Most typically the additives will be 0 - 1% solidson the basis of mass of the cement blend.

In some embodiments, the cement comprises defoamers. A defoamer may beadded to modify the surface tension of the cement, mortar, or concreteof the various embodiments to achieve necessary mixing characteristics.The air content of a cement, mortar, or concrete may be linked to otherperformance characteristics such as compressive strength, freeze-thawresistance, and permeability. Certain other additives which may be addedto the cement, mortar, or concrete of the various embodiments may reducethe surface tension of the liquid fraction of the solution which maylead to an undesirable foaming during mixing and transportation. Thisfoaming behavior can add excessive air to the cement, mortar, orconcrete which can severely limit the performance. Additionally, thisfoaming behavior can introduce substantial voids in the cement. Thesurface tension can be increased with the addition of a defoamer,restoring the necessary foaming behavior to ensure that excessive air isnot entrained. These additives may be added in quantities ranging from0 - 20% by mass of the cement blend on the basis of the additive solidmass. Most typically the additives will be 0 - 1% solids on the basis ofmass of the cement blend.

In some embodiments, the cement comprises Air entraining admixtures. Anair entraining admixture may be added to ensure the proper amount of airis entrained in the cement, mortar, or concrete of the variousembodiments to achieve specified freeze-thaw resistance andpermeability. Depending on the amount of air entrained by the mix, theair fraction may be too low to effectively resist freeze-thaw cyclingcommon to colder climates. An air-entraining admixture, as specified inASTM C260: Specification for Air-Entraining Admixtures for Concrete, maybe added to increase the amount of air entrained to an acceptableamount. The target amount of air to entrain is believed to be 9% byvolume. The air entraining admixtures have an added benefit of welldispersing the air bubbles entrained and controlling their size. Theseadditives may be added in quantities ranging from 0 - 20% by mass of thecement blend on the basis of the additive solid mass. Most typically theadditives will be 0 - 1% solids on the basis of mass of the cementblend.

In some embodiments, the cement comprises Alite (tricalcium silicate).Some alite, tricalcium silicate (Ca₃SiO₅ or C3S in cement chemistnotation) may be used in the cement blend. Alite is a component ofportland cement clinker. It may react with water to create calciumhydroxide and calcium silicate hydrate. Alite may be the most importantcomponent of portland cement that contributes most significantly toportland cement’s setting time and early strength development.Therefore, adding alite may contribute to rapid setting, rapidhardening, high ultimate compressive strength, and/or other favorableproperties when added to the cements of the various embodiments. Alitemay be used in quantities of 0 - 98% by mass of the cement blend. Mosttypically, the alite content may be between 0 - 30% by mass.

In some embodiments, the cement comprises Calcium aluminate cement,calcium sulfoaluminate cements, and/or or constituents thereof. Calciumaluminate cements and/or calcium sulfoaluminate cements may be added tothe cement blends. In some embodiments, these cements may exhibit veryrapid setting, rapid hardening, high early strength, and high ultimatestrength. In some embodiments, mixing these components into the cementblend of the various embodiments may confer these properties (rapidsetting, rapid hardening, high early strength, high ultimate strength)and/or other benefits to the cement blends of the various embodiments.In some embodiments, individual constituents of these cements such asye’elemite (Ca₄(AlO₂)₆SO₄, or C₃A₄$ in cement chemist notation) may beadded to the cement blends. In some embodiments, the ye’elemite mayreact with calcium hydroxide, water, gypsum, and/or other sources ofsulfate to create ettringite and/or other hydrated phases. In someembodiments, the rapid kinetics of ettringite formation may cause thecement to exhibit rapid setting, rapid hardening, high early strength,high ultimate strength, and/or other favorable properties.

Various embodiments may include manufacturing methods for producingcementitious material that has low embodied carbon. Various embodimentsmay include manufacturing methods that produce less CO₂ emitted to theatmosphere while producing cementitious material than is produced duringproduction of conventional cementitious materials, such as portlandcement. The cements of the various embodiments may be manufactured usinga variety of methods. Various embodiments may include methods formanufacturing said cements.

FIG. 3 illustrates embodiment method 300 of producing decarbonizedcement or decarbonized concrete according to various embodiments. Asillustrated in FIG. 3 , the decarbonized lime may be manufactured usinga method that does not result in substantial emission of CO₂ to theatmosphere. It may be manufactured from a variety of starting calciumsources such as limestone, cement kiln dust, lime kiln dust, industrialash (fly ash, bottom ash, municipal waste incinerator ash), slag, orrecycled or waste concrete/cement. In some embodiments, as describedabove, the lime may be manufactured using an electrochemical process, anelectric kiln or calciner, or a fossil fuel-powered calciner or kilnwhere the CO₂ is captured and sequestered.

The pozzolan may be a naturally occurring material. The pozzolan may bea byproduct or waste product of an industrial process, such as coalcombustion (fly ash, bottom ash) or iron refining (slag). The pozzolanmay be produced specifically for use in cement. The pozzolan may beproduced by heating a material such as clay in an electric calciner orkiln powered by renewable sources of electricity such that the processdoes not result in the release of CO₂. The pozzolan may be produced byheating a material such as clay in a calciner or kiln that consumesfossil fuel so CO₂ is created, but this CO₂ is captured and sequesteredor stored so it is not emitted to the atmosphere.

As illustrated in FIG. 3 , in various embodiments, decarbonized lime,pozzolan, and/or optional additives may be combined together to formdecarbonized cement.

To make decarbonized cement, in some embodiments, the lime and pozzolanmay be produced separately, then physically mixed or blended togethe.These components may be dry powders that are stored separately, thenfirst mixed or interground in the dry powder form, and finally mixedwith water and optionally other components to activate the cementitiousreaction. Alternatively, the lime and pozzolan may be stored separatelyas dry powders, then each individually added to water or another aqueoussolution. The lime may be a slurry or suspension of solid particles inwater or an aqueous solution, and said slurry may be mixed with a drypozzolan powder or a pozzolan slurry/suspension, and optionallyadditional water and other components. Similarly, the pozzolan may be aslurry or suspension of solid particles in water or an aqueous solution,and said slurry may be mixed with a dry lime powder or a limeslurry/suspension, and optionally additional water and other components.

In some embodiments, the lime and pozzolan may be produced together as amixture starting from a material that contains both calcium and silicon,resulting in a blended mixture of lime and pozzolan.

To make decarbonized concrete, in some embodiments, decarbonized cementmay be combined with aggregate sand and gravel, water, and optionallyadditives such as set accelerating admixtures, set retarding admixtures,air entraining admixtures, water reducing admixtures such assuperplasticizers, or others.

In some embodiments, the embodied carbon of the entire cement blend,such as the entire decarbonized cement produced by method 300, may bebelow about 0.93 kg CO₂ emissions per 1 kg cement, which is a typicalvalue for portland cement. In some embodiments, the embodied carbon ofthe entire cement blend, such as the entire decarbonized cement producedby method 300, may be below about 0.45 kg CO₂ per 1 kg cement, a typicalembodied carbon value reported for limestone calcined clay (“LC3”)cement. In some embodiments, the embodied carbon of the entire cementblend, such as the entire decarbonized cement produced by method 300,may be below about 0.25 kg CO₂ per 1 kg cement, a value which may beachieved in certain “high blend” cements that contain a small fractionof portland cement and relatively large quantities of supplementarycementitious materials and/or fillers.

In various embodiments, the cement, such as the decarbonized cementproduced by method 300, may be hydraulically active. It may beformulated as a dry powder, which may be subsequently mixed with water.In various embodiments, the cement, such as the decarbonized cementproduced by method 300, may be formulated as a wet slurry, a suspensionof solid lime particles and solid pozzolan particles in water or anaqueous solution. The water may initiate a reaction between the lime(calcium source) and pozzolan (silicon/aluminum source) which results inthe formation of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and optionally calciumsilicate aluminate hydrate (C-A-S-H) or other hydration products. Thereaction may cause the material to set and harden over time. In variousembodiments, the cement, such as the decarbonized cement produced bymethod 300, may develop mechanical properties such as high compressivestrength that make it useful for construction applications.

In various embodiments, the cement, such as the decarbonized cementproduced by method 300, may be used in concrete, cement mortar, grout,stucco, plaster, precast forms, or shotcrete/gunite. Most typically, itmay be used in concrete and cement mortar. In various embodiments, thecement, such as the decarbonized cement produced by method 300, may be afull or partial replacement for portland cement, which is the mostcommon cementitious material used for these applications. As describedabove, said cement blend may entirely replace portland cement, or insome embodiments the lime and pozzolan may be mixed with some portlandcement, and partially replace the portland cement.

To make concrete, the cement blend, such as the decarbonized cementproduced by method 300, may be mixed with water or an aqueous solution,aggregate (sand and gravel), and potentially chemical admixtures for thepurpose of set acceleration, set retardation, flow enhancement (e.g.superplasticizers), air entrainment, or other purposes. The concrete maybe used for construction applications like housing foundations, roads,sidewalks, high rise buildings, dams, pre-cast slabs or blocks, or otherstructures. This cement could potentially be used for any applicationwhere portland cement is currently used. Some cement blends meetingthese specifications may be used to create concrete that meets orexceeds the performance of portland cement concrete.

FIG. 4 illustrates an embodiment method 400 for forming a cementitiousbinder in accordance with various embodiments. In various embodiments,the cementitious binder created according to the steps of method 400 maybe used entirely or partially to form one or more cementitiousmaterials, including concrete, mortar, grout, stucco, plaster, fillers,aggregate, whitewashes, bricks, boards, pre-cast forms,shotcrete/gunite, housing foundations, sidewalks, roads, bridges, dams,etc. As specific examples, in various embodiments the cementitiousbinder created according to the steps of method 400 may be used entirelyor partially to form one or more cementitious materials having lowembodied carbon, including concrete having low embodied carbon, mortarhaving low embodied carbon, grout having low embodied carbon, stuccohaving low embodied carbon, plaster having low embodied carbon, fillershaving low embodied carbon, aggregate having low embodied carbon,whitewashes having low embodied carbon, bricks having low embodiedcarbon, boards having low embodied carbon, pre-cast forms having lowembodied carbon, shotcrete/gunite having low embodied carbon, housingfoundations having low embodied carbon, sidewalks having low embodiedcarbon, roads having low embodied carbon, bridges having low embodiedcarbon, dams having low embodied carbon, other building materials havinglow embodied carbon, other construction materials having low embodiedcarbon, other structures having low embodied carbon, etc.

In various embodiments, the method 400 may include creating a calciumhydroxide in step 402, such as through a precipitation reaction. As oneexample, calcium hydroxide may be created through a precipitationreaction with low levels of greenhouse gas emissions, such as resultingfrom production processes partially and/or entirely powered by renewableenergy. As a specific example, calcium hydroxide may be created as partof a chloralkali process. As a specific example, calcium hydroxide maybe created as part through a precipitation reaction occurring in achloralkali plant/process partially and/or entirely powered by renewableenergy. In various embodiments, the calcium hydroxide may be createdaccording to any process described herein. In various embodiments, thecalcium hydroxide may be an electrochemical calcium hydroxide. Invarious embodiments, the calcium hydroxide may be a low-temperaturecalcium hydroxide. In various embodiments, the calcium hydroxide may bea decarbonized calcium hydroxide. In various embodiments, the calciumhydroxide may have a Barrett, Joyner, and Halenda pore volume of lessthan about 0.10 mL/g. In various embodiments, the calcium hydroxide mayhave a Barrett, Joyner, and Halenda pore volume of less than about 0.05mL/g. In various embodiments, the calcium hydroxide may have a waterdemand of less than about 0.5 parts water per 1 part calcium hydroxideby mass. In various embodiments, the calcium hydroxide may have a waterdemand of less than about 0.4 parts water per 1 part calcium hydroxideby mass. In various embodiments, the calcium hydroxide may have a waterdemand of less than about 0.5 parts water per 1 part calcium hydroxideby mass, and a reactivity of greater than 90%. In various embodiments,the calcium hydroxide may have a water demand of less than about 0.4parts water per 1 part calcium hydroxide by mass, and a reactivity ofgreater than 90%. In various embodiments, the calcium hydroxide may havean average aspect ratio of less than about 1.2.

In step 404, at least one pozzolan may be selected. In variousembodiments, the pozzolan may be any pozzolan described herein. Invarious embodiments, the pozzolan may be a raw or calcined naturalpozzolan or clay.

In optional step 406, one or more additional components may be selected.Step 406 may be optional, as additional components may not be required,or desired, in all instances for forming a cementitious binder inaccordance with various embodiments. In various embodiments, additionalcomponents that may optionally be selected may include any one or moreof portland cement, portland cement clinker, tricalcium silicate,ye’elemite, calcium aluminate cement, calcium sulfoaluminate cement,calcium carbonate, water reducing admixture, set accelerating admixture,defoaming admixture, air entraining admixture, and/or calcium sulfate.In various embodiments, the optional additional components may includeat least 5% portland cement clinker by total cementitious binder mass.In various embodiments, the optional additional components may includeat least 2% of a calcium sulfate such as gypsum or anhydrite by totalcementitious binder mass. In various embodiments, the optionaladditional components may include a water reducing admixture in drypowder form. In various embodiments, the optional additional componentsmay include a defoaming admixture. In various embodiments, the optionaladditional components may include an air entraining admixture. Invarious embodiments, the optional additional components may include aset accelerating additive selected from the group including sodiumhydroxide, calcium chloride, sodium sulfate, sodium nitrate, calciumnitrite, calcium nitrate, sodium silicate, sodium thiocyante, sodiumlactate, triethanolamine, diethanolamine, triisopropanolamine,N,N,N′,N′-Tetrakis(2-hydroxyethyl)ethylenediamine, nanoparticulateportland cement, nanoparticulate calcium silicate hydrate,nanoparticulate limestone, or nanoparticulate lime. In variousembodiments, the optional additional components may include sodiumhydroxide. In various embodiments, the optional additional componentsmay include sodium sulfate. In various embodiments, the optionaladditional components may include a source of calcium carbonate such aslimestone. In various embodiments, the optional additional componentsmay include at least 2% by mass of a calcium sulfate such as gypsum oranhydrite, and a set accelerating additive selected from the groupincluding sodium hydroxide, calcium chloride, sodium sulfate, sodiumnitrate, calcium nitrite, calcium nitrate, sodium silicate, sodiumthiocyante, sodium lactate, triethanolamine, diethanolamine,triisopropanolamine, N,N,N′,N′-Tetrakis(2-hydroxyethyl)ethylenediamine,nanoparticulate portland cement, nanoparticulate calcium silicatehydrate, nanoparticulate limestone, or nanoparticulate lime. In variousembodiments, the optional additional components may include at least 2%by mass of a calcium sulfate such as gypsum or anhydrite, and a setaccelerating additive selected from the group including sodium hydroxideand sodium sulfate. In various embodiments, the optional additionalcomponents may include at least 2% by mass of a calcium sulfate such asgypsum or anhydrite, a set accelerating additive selected from the groupincluding sodium hydroxide, calcium chloride, sodium sulfate, sodiumnitrate, calcium nitrite, calcium nitrate, sodium silicate, sodiumthiocyante, sodium lactate, triethanolamine, diethanolamine,triisopropanolamine, N,N,N′,N′-Tetrakis(2-hydroxyethyl)ethylenediamine,nanoparticulate portland cement, nanoparticulate calcium silicatehydrate, nanoparticulate limestone, or nanoparticulate lime, and a waterreducing admixture in dry powder form. In various embodiments, theoptional additional components may include at least 2% of a calciumsulfate such as gypsum or anhydrite by total cementitious binder mass, aset accelerating additive selected from the group including sodiumhydroxide and sodium sulfate, and a water reducing admixture in drypowder form. In various embodiments, the optional additional componentsmay include less than about 25% portland cement clinker by totalcementitious binder mass. In various embodiments, the optionaladditional components may include less than about 10% portland cementclinker by total cementitious binder mass. In various embodiments, theoptional additional components may include no portland cement clinker.In various embodiments, the optional additional components may includeless than about 25% portland cement clinker by total cementitious bindermass. In various embodiments, the optional additional components mayinclude less than about 10% portland cement clinker by totalcementitious binder mass.

In step 408, the calcium hydroxide, at least one pozzolan, and anyoptionally selected additional components may be blended together. Inthis manner, the cementitious binder may be formed as the blendedmixture of the calcium hydroxide, at least one pozzolan, and anyoptionally selected additional components. In various embodiments, thecalcium hydroxide, at least one pozzolan, and any optionally selectedadditional components may be blended together to create a uniform drypower mixture. In various embodiments, the cementitious binder mayinclude less than about 50% by mass portland cement clinker. In variousembodiments, the cementitious binder may have a water demand of lessthan about 0.6 parts water per 1 part cementitious binder by mass. Invarious embodiments, the cementitious binder may have a water demand ofless than about 0.5 parts water per 1 part cementitious binder by mass.In various embodiments, the cementitious binder may have a 3-daycompressive strength of greater than about 13 MPa in 2 inch cementmortar cube compressive strength tests. In various embodiments, thecementitious binder may have a 7-day compressive strength of greaterthan about 20 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strengthtests. In various embodiments, the cementitious binder may have a 28-daycompressive strength of greater than about 28 MPa in 2 inch cementmortar cube compressive strength tests. In various embodiments, thecementitious binder may have an initial setting time of less than about2 hours. In various embodiments, the cementitious binder may have aninitial setting time of less than about 3 hours.

In some embodiments, the cements of the invention may have physicalproperties and/or performance characteristics that meet or exceed thosestated in ASTM Standard C1157, including but not limited to acompressive strength of at least 4060 pounds per square inch (PSI) aftersetting for 28 days as measured using the method described in ASTMStandard C109. In other embodiments, the cements of the invention mayhave compositions and/or performance characteristics that meet therequirements set forth in ASTM Standards C91, C141, C150, C206, C207,C595, C821, C997, C989, C1097, C1329, C1489, or C1707.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of this invention may haveproperties or performance characteristics that are different from orsuperior to known cements, including portland cements, blended cements,or pozzolanic cements.

In some embodiments, one or more components of the cement or concrete ofthis invention may have particle size, particle size distribution,reactivity, crystal structure, or impurity concentrations that aredifferent from known cements, and therefore change or improve theproperties or performance characteristics compared to known cements suchas portland cements, blended cements, or pozzolanic cements.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of this invention may havesuperior sulfate attack resistance, alkali-silica reaction resistance,efflorescence resistance, permeability resistance, corrosion resistance,flow characteristics, viscosity, slump, workability, soundness, flexuralstrength, compressive strength, or set time compared to known cements,including portland cements, blended cements, or pozzolanic cements.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may haveone or more of the following properties. The cement or concrete ofvarious embodiments may have a compressive strength at 1 day greaterthan about 1740 psi. The cement or concrete of various embodiments mayhave a compressive strength at 3 days greater than about 725 psi, 1160psi, 1450 psi, 1600 psi, 1740 psi, 1890 psi, 3480 psi, 4060 psi, 5000psi, or 6000 psi.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may havecompressive strength at 7 days greater than about 1600 psi, 2030 psi,2320 psi, 2470 psi, 2610 psi, 2760 psi, 2900 psi, 4060 psi, 5000 psi,6000 psi, 8000 psi, or 10000 psi.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may havecompressive strength at 28 days greater than about 4060 psi, 5000 psi,6000 psi, 8000 psi, or 10000 psi, 12000 psi, or 15000 psi.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may havecompressive strength at 90 days greater than about 4060 psi, 5000 psi,6000 psi, 8000 psi, or 10000 psi, 12000 psi, or 15000 psi.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may haveflexural strength at 7 days greater than about 100 psi, 200 psi, 300psi, 400 psi, 500 psi, 600 psi,700 psi, 800 psi, 900 psi, 1000 psi, 1200psi, or 1500 psi.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may haveflexural strength at 28 days greater than about 300 psi, 400 psi, 500psi, 600 psi,700 psi, 800 psi, 900 psi, 1000 psi, 1200 psi, or 1500 psi.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may haveflexural strength at 90 days greater than about 300 psi, 400 psi, 500psi, 600 psi,700 psi, 800 psi, 900 psi, 1000 psi, 1200 psi, or 1500 psi.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may havesetting time less than 12 hours, 8 hours, 6 hours, 4 hours, 3 hours, 2hours, 1 hour, 30 minutes, or 15 minutes.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may havesetting time greater than 30 minutes, 45 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours, 3hours, 4 hours, 6 hours, 8 hours, 10 hours, 12 hours, 24 hours, 48hours, 72 hours, 1 week, or 4 weeks.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may haveheat of hydration at 7 days less than 25 cal/g, 40 cal/g, 50 cal/g, 55cal/g, 80 cal/g, or 100 cal/g.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may haveautoclave length change under ASTM C151 test conditions of less than0.10%, 0.20%, 0.40%, 0.60%, 0.80%, or 1.0%.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may havemortar bar expansion at 14 days under ASTM C1038 test conditions of lessthan 0.005%, 0.010%, 0.015%, 0.020%, 0.025%, 0.030%, 0.040%, or 0.050%.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may havesulfate resistance indicated by sulfate expansion at 6 months under ASTMC1012 test conditions of less than 0.01%, 0.02%, 0.03%, 0.05%, 0.08%,0.10%, 0.15%, or 0.20%.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may havelow reactivity with alkali-silica-reactive aggregates indicated byexpansion at 14 days under ASTM C227 test conditions of less than0.005%, 0.010%, 0.015%, 0.020%, 0.025%, 0.030%, 0.040%, or 0.050%.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may havelow reactivity with alkali-silica-reactive aggregates indicated byexpansion at 56 days under ASTM C227 test conditions of less than0.010%, 0.015%, 0.020%, 0.025%, 0.030%, 0.040%, 0.050%, 0.060%, 0.080%,or 0.100%.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may havemortar air content according to test method ASTM C185 of greater than1%, 3%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 16%, 20%, or 22%.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may havemortar air content according to test method ASTM C185 of lower than 1%,3%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 16%, 20%, 22%, 25 %, or 30%.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may haveslump measured using ASTM C143 slump test method of less than 0.5 inch,1 inch, 2 inch, 3 inch, 4 inch, 5 inch, 6 inch, 7 inch, 8 inch, 9 inch,or 10 inch.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may haveslump measured using ASTM C143 slump test method of greater than 0.5inch, 1 inch, 2 inch, 3 inch, 4 inch, 5 inch, 6 inch, 7 inch, 8 inch, 9inch, or 10 inch.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may haveyield stress in fresh (unhardened) state greater than 200 Pa, 400 Pa,600 Pa, 800 Pa, 1000 Pa, 1200 Pa, 1400 Pa, 1600 Pa, 1800 Pa, or 2000 Pa.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may haveyield stress in fresh (unhardened) state less than 200 Pa, 400 Pa, 600Pa, 800 Pa, 1000 Pa, 1200 Pa, 1400 Pa, 1600 Pa, 1800 Pa, or 2000 Pa.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may haveplastic viscosity greater than 25 Pa·s, 50 Pa·s, 75 Pa·s, 100 Pa·s, 150Pa·s, 200 Pa·s, 250 Pa·s, 300 Pa·s, 400 Pa·s, 500 Pa·s, 600 Pa·s, 800Pa·s, or 1000 Pa·s.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may haveplastic viscosity less than 25 Pa·s, 50 Pa·s, 75 Pa·s, 100 Pa·s, 150Pa·s, 200 Pa·s, 250 Pa·s, 300 Pa·s, 400 Pa·s, 500 Pa·s, 600 Pa·s, 800Pa·s, or 1000 Pa·s.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may haverapid chloride permeability measured according to the procedure definedin ASTM C1202 of less than 100 coulomb, 200 coulomb, 400 coulomb, 600coulomb, 800 coulomb, 1000 coulomb, 1500 coulomb, 2000 coulomb, 3000coulomb, 4000 coulomb, 5000 coulomb, or 6000 coulomb.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may havepore solution pH less than 8.0, 9.0, 10.0, 11.0, 12.0, 12.5, 13.0, 13.5,or 14.0.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may havepore solution pH greater than 8.0, 9.0, 10.0, 11.0, 12.0, 12.5, 13.0,13.5, or 14.0.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may havedensity greater than 1000 kg/m³, 1200 kg/m³, 1400 kg/m³, 1600 kg/m³,1800 kg/m³, 2000 kg/m³, 2200 kg/m³, 2400 kg/m³, 2600 kg/m³, 2800 kg/m³,3000 kg/m³.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may havedensity less than 1000 kg/m³, 1200 kg/m³, 1400 kg/m³, 1600 kg/m³, 1800kg/m³, 2000 kg/m³, 2200 kg/m³, 2400 kg/m³, 2600 kg/m³, 2800 kg/m³, 3000kg/m³.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may havewhiteness measured by on reflectance value or “L value” of greater thanabout 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, or 95%.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may havecement mortar flow greater than 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%,40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 100%, 105%,110%, 120%, 130%, 140%, 150%, 160%, 170%, 180%, 190%, or 200% asmeasured using the flow table apparatus and procedure described in ASTMC230, “Specification for Flow Table for Use in Tests of HydraulicCement”

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may havewater/cementitious solids (also called water/binder) mass ratio of lessthan 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.36, 0.37, 0.38, 0.39, 0.40, 0.41, 0.42,0.43, 0.44, 0.45, 0.46, 0.47, 0.48, 0.49, 0.50, 0.51, 0.52, 0.53, 0.54,0.55, 0.56, 0.57, 0.58, 0.59, 0.60, 0.61, 0.62, 0.63, 0.64, 0.65, 0.66,0.67, 0.68, 0.69, or 0.70 while achieving cement mortar flow greaterthan 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%,70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 100%, 105%, 110%, 120%, 130%, 140%, 150%,160%, 170%, 180%, 190%, or 200% as measured using the flow tableapparatus and procedure described in ASTM C230, “Specification for FlowTable for Use in Tests of Hydraulic Cement”

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may meetone or more of the performance criteria listed in Table 1 below. In someembodiments, the cement may simultaneously meet all the performancecriteria in Table 1 below. In some embodiments, the cement maysimultaneously meet the compressive strength, flow table spread, andinitial time of setting performance requirements specified in Table 1below. In some embodiments, the cement may simultaneously meet thecompressive strength, flow table spread, initial time of setting, ASRaggregate expansion, autoclave length change, and mortar bar expansionperformance requirements specified in Table 1 below. In someembodiments, the cement may meet other combinations or variations ofthese performance requirements listed in Table 1 below.

TABLE 1 PARAMETER TEST METHOD /REFERENCE ASTM C1157 TARGET OTHER TARGETCompressive strength, 03 days ASTM C109 ≥ 13 MPa Compressive strength,07 days ASTM C109 ≥ 20 MPa Compressive strength, 28 days ASTM C109 ≥ 28MPa Flow table spread (workability) ASTM C1437 ≥ 30% Time of setting,initial (max) ASTM C191, C807 ≤ 7 hr ≤ 2 hr Time of setting, initial(min) ASTM C191, C807 ≥ 45 min ASR aggregate expansion, 14 days ASTMC1260 ≤ 0.10% Autoclave length change (CaO/MgO) ASTM C151 ≤ 0.80% Mortarbar expansion, 14 days (sulfates) ASTM C1038 ≤ 0.020% Air content ofmortar by density ASTM C185 ≤ 12% <4 % Chloride concentration, watersoluble ASTM C1218 ≤ 0.3%wt Chloride permeability/diffusivity C1202 <2000 C Heat of hydration C1702 ≤ 335 kJ/kg @ 3 days Pore solution pH ≥13 Sulfate expansion, 06 months ASTM C1012 ≤ 0.05% Sulfate expansion, 12months ASTM C1012 ≤ 0.10% Water/binder ratio for normal flow ASTM C1437≤ 0.45 Chloride concentration, acid soluble ASTM C1152 ≤ 0.4%wt ASRaggregate expansion, 14 days ASTM C227 (Withdrawn) ≤ 0.020% ASRaggregate expansion, 56 days ASTM C227 (Withdrawn) ≤ 0.060% Flow tablespread (workability) ASTM C1437 ±5% of the control mixture Mortarcompressive strength, 03 days ASTM C109 ≥ 13 MPa Mortar compressivestrength, 07 days ASTM C109 ≥ 20 MPa Mortar compressive strength, 28days ASTM C109 ≥ 28 MPa Time of setting (vicat needle) ASTM C191, C807Between 45 min and 7 hr ≤ 4 hr Initial time of setting, (penetrationresistance) ASTM C403 ≥ 2 hr Final time of setting, (penetrationresistance) ASTM C403 ≤ 10 hr Water/binder ratio for normal flow ASTMC1437 ≤ 0.45 Air content of mortar by density ASTM C185 ≤ 12% <4 % ASRmortar bar expansion, 14 days ASTM C1260, C1567 ≤ 0.10% Soundness(autoclave expansion due to hydration of free CaO/MgO) ASTM C151 ≤ 0.80%and ≥ 0.80% Mortar bar expansion under water, 14 days (sulfates) ASTMC1038 ≤ 0.020% ASR concrete prism (1 year) ASTM C1293 ≤ 0.04% Chlorideconcentration, water soluble ASTM C1218 ≤ 0.3%wt ACI 318 Table 19.3.2.1(exposed to water) or ≤ 0.06%wt Pre-stresssed Particle size sieve method(45 um) ASTM C430 34% Sulfate expansion, 06 months ASTM C1012 < 0.05%Sulfate expansion, 12 months ASTM C1012 ≤ 0.10% Chloride concentration,acid soluble ASTM C1152 ≤ 0.4%wt Heat of hydration C1702 ≤ 335 kJ/kg @ 3days

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may haveone or more of the following combinations of properties.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may have asetting time less than 8 hours, less than 6 hours, less than 4 hours,less than 3 hours, less than 2 hours, less than 1 hour, less than 30minutes, or less than 15 minutes, while reaching 28 day compressivestrength greater than about 4060 psi, greater than about 5000 psi,greater than about 6000 psi, greater than about 8000 psi, greater thanabout 10000 psi, greater than about 12000 psi, or greater than about15000 psi.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may have aheat of hydration at 7 days less than 25 cal/g, 40 cal/g, 50 cal/g, 55cal/g, 80 cal/g, or 100 cal/g, while reaching 28 day compressivestrength greater than about 4060 psi, greater than about 5000 psi,greater than about 6000 psi, greater than about 8000 psi, greater thanabout 10000 psi, greater than about 12000 psi, or greater than about15000 psi.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may have apore solution pH greater than 8.0, 9.0, 10.0, 11.0, 12.0, 12.5, 13.0,13.5, or 14.0, while reaching 28 day compressive strength greater thanabout 4060 psi, greater than about 5000 psi, greater than about 6000psi, greater than about 8000 psi, greater than about 10000 psi, greaterthan about 12000 psi, or greater than about 15000 psi.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may have arapid chloride permeability measured according to the procedure definedin ASTM C1202 of less than 100 coulomb, 200 coulomb, 400 coulomb, 600coulomb, 800 coulomb, 1000 coulomb, 1500 coulomb, 2000 coulomb, 3000coulomb, 4000 coulomb, 5000 coulomb, or 6000 coulomb, while reaching 28day compressive strength greater than about 4060 psi, greater than about5000 psi, greater than about 6000 psi, greater than about 8000 psi,greater than about 10000 psi, greater than about 12000 psi, or greaterthan about 15000 psi.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may have awhiteness measured by on reflectance value or “L value” of greater thanabout 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, or 95%, whilereaching 28 day compressive strength greater than about 4060 psi,greater than about 5000 psi, greater than about 6000 psi, greater thanabout 8000 psi, greater than about 10000 psi, greater than about 12000psi, or greater than about 15000 psi.

In some embodiments, the cement or concrete of the invention may have awater/cementitious solids (also called water/binder) mass ratio of lessthan 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.36, 0.37, 0.38, 0.39, 0.40, 0.41, 0.42,0.43, 0.44, 0.45, 0.46, 0.47, 0.48, 0.49, 0.50, 0.51, 0.52, 0.53, 0.54,0.55, 0.56, 0.57, 0.58, 0.59, 0.60, 0.61, 0.62, 0.63, 0.64, 0.65, 0.66,0.67, 0.68, 0.69, or 0.70 required to achieve cement mortar flow greaterthan 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%,70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 100%, 105%, 110%, 120%, 130%, 140%, 150%,160%, 170%, 180%, 190%, or 200% as measured using the flow tableapparatus and procedure described in ASTM C230, “Specification for FlowTable for Use in Tests of Hydraulic Cement”; setting time less than 8hours, less than 6 hours, less than 4 hours, less than 3 hours, lessthan 2 hours, less than 1 hour, less than 30 minutes, or less than 15minutes, and 28 day compressive strength greater than about 4060 psi,greater than about 5000 psi, greater than about 6000 psi, greater thanabout 8000 psi, greater than about 10000 psi, greater than about 12000psi, or greater than about 15000 psi.

In some embodiments, the low-carbon cements of the invention, whichinclude the compositions of the cement component of concreteformulations using said cement, have compositions in which Ca, Si, andAl are the cations or metals present in highest concentration. In someembodiments, the relative amounts of Ca, Si and Al are similar to theirproportions present in ordinary portland cement (OPC), as illustrated inFIG. 5 . FIG. 5 is a ternary phase diagram illustrating mass compositionof decarbonized cement, lime, pozzolans, and other materials. In someembodiments, the relative concentrations in weight percentage of the Ca,Si and Al oxide constituents are 60-75% CaO, 15-25% SiO₂, and 0-10%Al₂O₃, respectively. In some embodiments, the percentages of CaO, SiO₂,and Al₂O₃ are together at least 75% by weight of the total oxidecomposition of the cement.

In other embodiments, the relative amounts of Ca, Si and Al in thelow-carbon cements of the invention are similar to their proportionspresent in C-S-H and C-A-S-H, as illustrated in FIG. 5 . In someembodiments, the relative concentrations in weight percentage of the Ca,Si and Al oxide constituents are 45-60% CaO, 40-55% SiO₂, and 0-15%Al₂O₃, respectively. In some embodiments, the percentages of CaO, SiO₂,and Al₂O₃ are together at least 75% by weight of the total oxidecomposition of the cement.

In other embodiments, the relative amounts of Ca, Si and Al in thelow-carbon cements of the invention have proportions similar to thoseindicated by the region labeled “Decarbonized Cement” in FIG. 5 . Insome embodiments, the relative concentrations in weight percentage ofthe Ca, Si and Al oxide constituents are 30-60% CaO, 30-60% SiO₂, and0-25% Al₂O₃, respectively. In some embodiments, the percentages of CaO,SiO₂, and Al₂O₃ are together at least 75% by weight of the total oxidecomposition of the cement.

In some embodiments, the relative amounts of Ca, Si and Al in thelow-carbon cements of the invention lie within a range of compositionsbounded by mixtures of the compositions stated in the preceding threeparagraphs, wherein the amount of each composition is a positive value.

In some embodiments, cement of any of the preceding compositionscomprises at least a mixture of the decarbonized lime of the inventionand a pozzolan.

Various specific example cement preparation methods and cements inaccordance with the various embodiments, such as the methods 300 and 400described above and other methods discussed herein are discussed below.

Example: Fly Ash/Quicklime Cement

For 1 kg of cement, mix: 0.40 kg quicklime produced using an electrickiln and 0.60 kg fly ash. The cement components above are used to make acement mortar in the following manner. The dry powders are mixed for atleast 30 s to ensure even distribution. The mixer is turned off; 0.40 kgof tap water is added to the bowl of the stand mixer containing the 1 kgblended dry cement powder. The mixer is turned on for 30 s at 140 rpm;2.75 kg of Ottawa sand is poured into the stand mixer while it isrunning at 140 rpm over a 30 s period. The mixer speed is changed to 285rpm and the mortar is mixed for an additional 30 s. The mixer is stoppedfor 90 s. During the first 15 s of this interval, a spatula is used toscrape down the sides of the mixer bowl. The mixer is turned on againfor 60 s at 285 rpm. This concludes the mortar preparation procedure.The mortar is now ready for property measurements and casting.

The flow of the cement mortar was measured using a flow table apparatusin accordance with ASTM C230: Specification for Flow Table for Use inTests of Hydraulic Cement is prepared. A conical mold with 100 mm majordiameter is placed on the center of the flow table platform and filledwith cement mortar. The conical mold is removed, leaving the cementmortar behind. The flow table platform is dropped 25 times in a periodof 15 s. Digital calipers are used to measure the diameter of the spreadout cement mortar four times. The four measured diameter lines arespread at 45 degree angles, so they uniformly cover the spread outcement mortar. The flow percent is calculated by averaging the fourfinal diameter measurements, dividing by the initial 100 mm diameter,and subtracting 100%. Following this method, the cement of this examplehad a flow of 43%.

Example: Calcined Clay/Hydrated Lime/Additive Cement

For 1 kg cement, mix 0.55 kg calcined clay, 0.30 kg hydrated limeproduced using room temperature aqueous electrochemical process fromwaste concrete feedstock, 0.10 kg portland cement, 0.03 kg gypsumpowder, and 0.02 kg sodium hydroxide.

The cement components above are used to make a cement mortar in thefollowing manner. The dry powders are mixed for at least 30 s to ensureeven distribution. The mixer is turned off. 0.40 kg of tap water isadded to the bowl of the stand mixer containing the 1 kg blended drycement powder. The mixer is turned on for 30 s at 140 rpm. 2.75 kg ofOttawa sand is poured into the stand mixer while it is running at 140rpm over a 30 s period. The mixer speed is changed to 285 rpm and themortar is mixed for an additional 30 s. The mixer is stopped for 90 s.During the first 15 s of this interval, a spatula is used to scrape downthe sides of the mixer bowl. The mixer is turned on again for 60 s at285 rpm. This concludes the mortar preparation procedure. The mortar isnow ready for property measurements and casting.

The flow of the cement mortar was measured as follows: A flow tableapparatus in accordance with ASTM C230: Specification for Flow Table forUse in Tests of Hydraulic Cement was prepared. A conical mold with 100mm major diameter is placed on the center of the flow table platform andfilled with cement mortar. The conical mold is removed, leaving thecement mortar behind. The flow table platform is dropped 25 times in aperiod of 15 s. Digital calipers are used to measure the diameter of thespread out cement mortar four times. The four measured diameter linesare spread at 45 degree angles, so they uniformly cover the spread outcement mortar. The flow percent is calculated by averaging the fourfinal diameter measurements, dividing by the initial 100 mm diameter,and subtracting 100%. Following this method, the cement of this examplehad a flow of 43%.

Example: Natural Pozzolan/Ground Glass/Lime Kiln Dust/Additive Cement

For 1 kg cement, mix 0.20 kg volcanic tuff natural pozzolan, 0.35 kgground glass, 0.25 kg lime kiln dust, 0.15 kg portland cement, 0.03 kggypsum powder, 0.02 kg calcium chloride.

The cement components above are used to make a cement mortar in thefollowing manner. The dry powders are mixed for at least 30 s to ensureeven distribution. The mixer is turned off. 0.40 kg of tap water isadded to the bowl of the stand mixer containing the 1 kg blended drycement powder. The mixer is turned on for 30 s at 140 rpm. 2.75 kg ofOttawa sand is poured into the stand mixer while it is running at 140rpm over a 30 s period. The mixer speed is changed to 285 rpm and themortar is mixed for an additional 30 s. The mixer is stopped for 90 s.During the first 15 s of this interval, a spatula is used to scrape downthe sides of the mixer bowl. The mixer is turned on again for 60 s at285 rpm. This concludes the mortar preparation procedure. The mortar isnow ready for property measurements and casting.

The flow of the cement mortar was measured as follows. A flow tableapparatus in accordance with ASTM C230: Specification for Flow Table forUse in Tests of Hydraulic Cement was prepared. A conical mold with 100mm major diameter is placed on the center of the flow table platform andfilled with cement mortar. The conical mold is removed, leaving thecement mortar behind. The flow table platform is dropped 25 times in aperiod of 15 s. Digital calipers are used to measure the diameter of thespread out cement mortar four times. The four measured diameter linesare spread at 45 degree angles, so they uniformly cover the spread outcement mortar. The flow percent is calculated by averaging the fourfinal diameter measurements, dividing by the initial 100 mm diameter,and subtracting 100%. Following this method, the cement of this examplehad a flow of 43%.

Example: Concrete. For 1 cubic meter of concrete, mix 365 kg cement fromany of the examples above (e.g., the example Fly Ash/Quicklime Cement,the example Calcined Clay/Hydrated Lime/Additive Cement, the exampleNatural Pozzolan/Ground Glass/Lime Kiln Dust/Additive Cement, etc.), orother composition meeting requirements specified here, with 730 kg sand,1250 kg aggregate, and 155 kg water.

Example: Metakaolin/Hydrated Lime/Additive Cement. For each 1 kg cement,mix, 0.63 kg metakaolin with specific surface area of at least 15 m²/gas measured by BET, 0.19 kg hydrated lime with average particle diameterof at least 4 micron and BJH pore volume less than 0.10 mL/g, 0.10 kgportland cement, 0.05 kg gypsum, and 0.02 kg dry sodium hydroxide beadswith a diameter between 1 mm and 2 mm

This combination of dry powders is added to the bowl of a benchtop standmixer and mixed together using a flat beater paddle for at least oneminute at 140 RPM. This ensures the powders are well distributed. Afterthis initial mixing period, the mixer is turned off, and the mixture ishydrated with 0.6 kg of water poured directly on top of the mixed drypowder. The stand mixer is turned on at 140 RPM to incorporate the waterinto the mix. This mixture of cement powder and water is referred to asa cement paste. To prepare a cement mortar, as is more commonly testedfor compressive strength, 2.75 kg of sand is added to the paste mixture.The sand is incorporated slowly over a 30-second period while the mixeris turned on to 140 RPM. After the sand has been added, the mortar ismixed for 30 seconds at 285 RPM. The mixer is then turned off for a 90second period, during which time the operator scrapes down the sides ofthe mixing bowl. After this pause, the mixing continues at 285 RPM foran additional 60 seconds. After this mixing process, the mortar is readyfor subsequent casting and testing.

After the mortar is mixed, the mortar fresh properties may be evaluated.Amongst important fresh properties are the workability of the mortar andthe time that it may remain workable. The time that it remains workableis known as the set time. Workability may be evaluated using the methodand apparatus described in ASTM C1437: Standard Test Method for Flow ofHydraulic Cement Mortar. The fresh mortar is packed into the conicalmold of the flow table in two layers using a 1″x0.5″x6″ hard rubbertamping rod. The tamping is done by pressing the tamping rod into thefresh mortar at least 20 times all across the layer. After the secondlayer is added and tamped, the excess cement is removed from the top ofthe conical mold by using a hand trowel in a sawing motion over thesurface. The conical mold is then removed, leaving behind just themortar. The flow table is then actuated 25 times over a 15 secondperiod, where each actuation raises and drops the table at least 1″,impacting the mortar against the table and thus flattening it. Theresulting spread of the mortar is measured for its diameter across fourequally spaced diagonals using a 12″ set of digital calipers against theedge of the mortar. The flow of the mortar is determined by thedifference between the initial diameter of the conical mold, 100 mm, andthe average of the diagonal measurements. In the case of this recipe,the flow was determined to be 37% from an average diagonal diameter of136.8 mm. The set time is determined using the method and apparatusdescribed in ASTM C807: Test Method for Time of Setting of HydraulicCement Mortar by Modified Vicat Needle. The mortar is packed into acylindrical mold with a diameter of 76 mm in two layers, where bothlayers are tamped. The excess cement mortar is removed using a trowel.The cement is stored in a moist cabinet with 100% humidity to preventdrying. The saturation humidity prevents a change in the water to cementratio of the mix due to evaporation. Every 15 minutes, the 2 mm Vicatneedle with a 300 g mass attached is allowed to sink into the mortarmixture. The depth of penetration is related to the degree of curing.Full needle penetration occurs when there has been no setting. When theneedle cannot penetrate further than 10 mm below the surface, the mortaris considered to have set. Each needle penetration is no less than 10 mmaway from previous needle drops. For this particular mixture, the timeof setting was 95 minutes after the water was added to the cementpowder.

After the flow and setting time tests have started, the mortar is pouredinto molds to achieve the shape needed for future compression tests. Thetesting geometry is 2″x2″x2″ cubes, formed by cubic molds consisting oftwo sidewalls and one bottom piece. All of the joints are sealed using aliberal coating of petroleum jelly such as vaseline, and then avegetable oil based mold release is applied to the faces of the mold.The molds are then filled with mortar in two layers, with each layertamped 32 times, by utilizing a perpendicular sweeping pattern over thelayer of the cube. The excess mortar is removed with a trowel in asawing motion. The molds are then stored in a humid container to preventdrying. The cubes remain in their molds for at least 24 hours, by whichpoint they have set and cured enough to have the strength to resist thedemolding process. The demolding process consists of disassembling themolds and removing the cubes carefully. The cubes are then placed instorage in a moist cabinet, an environment with 100% humidity.Saturation humidity is required for curing to prevent the cubes fromdrying out, as the water is believed to be a critical reactant for thehydration of the cement.

The cubes are evaluated for their compressive strength at differentpoints of the curing process, which may take more than 180 days tocomplete. The cubes are commonly tested at 3, 7, 28, and 90 days, butmay also be tested at 1, 14, 180, and 365 days or other intervals. Foreach testing day, three cement mortar cubes are tested for theirultimate compressive strength using a uniaxial compression test, wheretwo opposing platens crush against the cube. The force applied by theplatens is monitored until ultimate failure of the cube, and the peakforce applied to the cube is recorded. This applied force is thendivided by the cross-sectional area of the cube, 4 in², and the pressureat peak force is recorded as the failure strength. The strength of thethree cubes is averaged to determine the strength of the cement mortarat the given day of the test. This strength is reported in units of MPaor psi. This mix recipe resulted in failure strengths of 10.14 MPa at 3days, 15.41 MPa at 7 days, 20.17 MPa at 29 days, and26.73 MPa at 90days.

Example: Cement Made From Natural Pozzolan, Hydrated Lime, PortlandCement, and Additives

For each 1 kg cement, mix 0.1 kg portland cement meeting thespecifications of ASTM C150 Type I/II cement, manufactured byLafargeHolcim, with 0.2 kg hydrated lime. This hydrated lime ismanufactured by Carmeuse, a lime and limestone company, via limestonecalcination and slaking. This lime has a paste water demand of 1.1 gwater/g lime to produce a paste with viscosity approximately equal to a0.4 g water/1.0 g portland cement paste. Additionally, mix, with theportland cement and the hydrated lime, 0.68 kg natural pozzolan sold byCR Minerals as Tephra NP and 0.02 kg gypsum powder.

The cement components above are used to make a cement mortar in thefollowing manner. The dry powders are mixed for at least 30 s to ensureeven distribution. The mixer is turned off. 620 g of 1.5 M NaOH(technical grade) in tap water solution is added to the bowl of thestand mixer containing the 1060 g blended dry cement powder. 10.6 g ofChryso Optima 258 EMX polycarboxylate superplasticizer solution is addedto the mixer bowl. The mixer is turned on for 30 s at 140 rpm. 2915 g ofOttawa sand is poured into the stand mixer while it is running at 140rpm over a 30 s period. The mixer speed is changed to 285 rpm and themortar is mixed for an additional 30 s. The mixer is stopped for 90 s.During the first 15 s of this interval, a spatula is used to scrape downthe sides of the mixer bowl. The mixer is turned on again for 60 s at285 rpm. This concludes the mortar preparation procedure. The mortar isnow ready for property measurements and casting.

The flow of the cement mortar was measured as follows. A flow tableapparatus in accordance with ASTM C230: Specification for Flow Table forUse in Tests of Hydraulic Cement was prepared. A conical mold with 100mm major diameter is placed on the center of the flow table platform andfilled with cement mortar. The conical mold is removed, leaving thecement mortar behind. The flow table platform is dropped 25 times in aperiod of 15 s. Digital calipers are used to measure the diameter of thespread out cement mortar four times. The four measured diameter linesare spread at 45 degree angles, so they uniformly cover the spread outcement mortar. The flow percent is calculated by averaging the fourfinal diameter measurements, dividing by the initial 100 mm diameter,and subtracting 100%. Following this method, the cement of this examplehad a flow of 43%.

The compressive strength of this cement mortar was tested following theprocedure described in ASTM C109: Test Method for Compressive Strengthof Hydraulic Cement Mortars. The procedure entails the following steps.Fill a 50 mm cube mold approximately halfway with cement mortar. Use atamping rod to tamp the mortar into the cube mold, tamping 32 times overa 10 s period back and forth along opposing sides of the mold. Fill the50 mm cube mold with additional cement mortar until the mortar slightlyoverflows from the mold. Use a tamping rod to tamp the mortar into thecube mold, tamping 32 times over a 10 s period back and forth alongopposing sides of the mold. Scrape off excess mortar using a trowel.Draw the edge of a trowel over the surface of the mold a second time,using a sawing motion to create a smooth, clean surface. Place themolded cement mortar cube (or cubes) into a container saturated withwater vapor. The relative humidity inside the curing chamber should beat least 98% relative humidity. The curing temperature should be between20° C. and 25° C. Place a moist towel over the top of the cubes toensure that they are kept sufficiently humidified. Allow the cube(s) tocure inside the mold(s) for at least 24 hr. When the cube(s) aresufficiently cured, remove them from the molds and place them back intothe humidity chamber. Remove three cubes at each time point, 3 days, 7days, 28 days, and 90 days. Use a hydraulic compression tester tocompress each cube until it fractures. Record the compressive strengthat fracture. The compressive strength of the cement mortar prepared inthis manner was 450 psi at 3 days and 798 psi at 7 days.

Example: Cement Made From Electrochemical Precipitated DecarbonizedHydrated Lime, Metakaolin, Limestone, and Additives

For each 1 kg cement, mix 0.147 kg electrochemical precipitateddecarbonized hydrated lime. To synthesize the calcium hydroxide in thisexample, an electrochemical reactor powered by solar electricity is usedto produce a strong acid and a strong base, which are then used tomanufacture the calcium hydroxide. Therefore, this calcium hydroxide isan electrochemical calcium hydroxide. The acid from the electrochemicalreactor is used to dissolve calcium from a calcium silicate material andcreate a solution containing calcium ions. The resulting solution ofcalcium ions is reacted with the strong base to precipitate calciumhydroxide. Therefore, this calcium hydroxide is a precipitated calciumhydroxide. This calcium hydroxide is produced with no fossil fuelcombustion CO₂ emissions and no limestone decomposition CO₂ emissions,so it is also a decarbonized calcium hydroxide. This hydrated lime has aBET specific surface area of 1.63 m²/g, a BJH pore volume of 0.011 mL/g,and a paste consistency water demand of 0.35 g water / 1 g calciumhydroxide. Herein, this example hydrated lime may be referred to as“Sublime Systems precipitated calcium hydroxide A”.

Additionally, mix 0.160 kg high calcium limestone powder, 0.643 kg highreactivity metakaolin pozzolan, and 0.050 kg gypsum powder.

The cement components above were used to make a cement mortar in thefollowing manner. The dry powders are mixed for at least 30 s to ensureeven distribution. The mixer is turned off. 689 g of 1.5 M NaOH(technical grade) in tap water solution is added to the bowl of thestand mixer containing 1060 g blended dry cement powder. 10.6 g ofChryso Optima 258 EMX polycarboxylate superplasticizer solution is addedto the mixer bowl. The mixer is turned on for 30 s at 140 rpm. 2915 g ofOttawa sand is poured into the stand mixer while it is running at 140rpm over a 30 s period. The mixer speed is changed to 285 rpm and themortar is mixed for an additional 30 s. The mixer is stopped for 90 s.During the first 15 s of this interval, a spatula is used to scrape downthe sides of the mixer bowl. The mixer is turned on again for 60 s at285 rpm. This concludes the mortar preparation procedure. The mortar isnow ready for property measurements and casting.

The flow of the cement mortar of this example was measured as follows. Aflow table apparatus in accordance with ASTM C230: Specification forFlow Table for Use in Tests of Hydraulic Cement was prepared. A conicalmold with 100 mm major diameter is placed on the center of the flowtable platform and filled with cement mortar. The conical mold isremoved, leaving the cement mortar behind. The flow table platform isdropped 25 times in a period of 15 s. Digital calipers are used tomeasure the diameter of the spread out cement mortar four times. Thefour measured diameter lines are spread at 45 degree angles, so theyuniformly cover the spread out cement mortar. The flow percent iscalculated by averaging the four final diameter measurements, dividingby the initial 100 mm diameter, and subtracting 100%. Following thismethod, the cement of this example was measured to have a flow of 48%.

The compressive strength of this cement mortar of this example wastested following the procedure described in ASTM C109: Test Method forCompressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars. The procedure entailsthe following steps. Fill a 50 mm cube mold approximately halfway withcement mortar. Use a tamping rod to tamp the mortar into the cube mold,tamping 32 times over a 10 s period back and forth along opposing sidesof the mold. Fill the 50 mm cube mold with additional cement mortaruntil the mortar slightly overflows from the mold. Use a tamping rod totamp the mortar into the cube mold, tamping 32 times over a 10 s periodback and forth along opposing sides of the mold. Scrape off excessmortar using a trowel. Draw the edge of a trowel over the surface of themold a second time, using a sawing motion to create a smooth, cleansurface. Place the molded cement mortar cube (or cubes) into a containersaturated with water vapor. The relative humidity inside the curingchamber should be at least 98% relative humidity. The curing temperatureshould be between 20° C. and 25° C. Place a moist towel over the top ofthe cubes to ensure that they are kept sufficiently humidified. Allowthe cube(s) to cure inside the mold(s) for at least 24 hr. When thecube(s) are sufficiently cured, remove them from the molds and placethem back into the humidity chamber. Remove three cubes at each timepoint, 3 days, 7 days, 28 days, and 90 days. Use a hydraulic compressiontester to compress each cube until it fractures. Record the compressivestrength at fracture. The compressive strength of the cement mortarprepared in accordance with this example was tested and shown to be 8.3MPa at 3 days, 10.8 MPa at 7 days, and 14 MPa at 28 days.

Example: Cement Made From Metakaolin, Hydrated Lime, Portland Cement,Limestone, and Additives

For each 1 kg cement, mix 0.380 kg ASTM C150-19 Common Reference TypeI/II Portland Cement from the Cement and Concrete Reference Laboratoryand 0.050 kg hydrated lime. This hydrated lime is manufactured byCarmeuse, a lime and limestone company, via limestone calcination andslaking. This lime has a paste water demand of 1.1 g water/g lime toproduce a paste with viscosity approximately equal to a 0.4 g water/1.0g portland cement paste. Additionally, mix 0.416 kg high reactivitymetakaolin pozzolan, 0.104 kg high calcium limestone powder, 0.015 kggypsum powder, and 0.035 kg sodium sulfate.

The cement components above are used to make a cement mortar in thefollowing manner. The dry powders are mixed for at least 30 s to ensureeven distribution. The mixer is turned off. 530 g of tap water is addedto the bowl of the stand mixer containing 1060 g blended dry cementpowder. 10.6 g of Chryso Optima 258 EMX polycarboxylate superplasticizersolution is added to the mixer bowl. The mixer is turned on for 30 s at140 rpm. 2915 g of Ottawa sand is poured into the stand mixer while itis running at 140 rpm over a 30 s period. The mixer speed is changed to285 rpm and the mortar is mixed for an additional 30 s. The mixer isstopped for 90 s. During the first 15 s of this interval, a spatula isused to scrape down the sides of the mixer bowl. The mixer is turned onagain for 60 s at 285 rpm. This concludes the mortar preparationprocedure. The mortar is now ready for property measurements andcasting.

The flow of the cement mortar was measured as follows. A flow tableapparatus in accordance with ASTM C230: Specification for Flow Table forUse in Tests of Hydraulic Cement was prepared. A conical mold with 100mm major diameter is placed on the center of the flow table platform andfilled with cement mortar. The conical mold is removed, leaving thecement mortar behind. The flow table platform is dropped 25 times in aperiod of 15 s. Digital calipers are used to measure the diameter of thespread out cement mortar four times. The four measured diameter linesare spread at 45 degree angles, so they uniformly cover the spread outcement mortar. The flow percent is calculated by averaging the fourfinal diameter measurements, dividing by the initial 100 mm diameter,and subtracting 100%. Following this flow testing method, the cement ofthis example had a flow of 30%.

The compressive strength of this cement mortar was tested following theprocedure described in ASTM C109: Test Method for Compressive Strengthof Hydraulic Cement Mortars. The procedure entails the following steps.Fill a 50 mm cube mold approximately halfway with cement mortar. Use atamping rod to tamp the mortar into the cube mold, tamping 32 times overa 10 s period back and forth along opposing sides of the mold. Fill the50 mm cube mold with additional cement mortar until the mortar slightlyoverflows from the mold. Use a tamping rod to tamp the mortar into thecube mold, tamping 32 times over a 10 s period back and forth alongopposing sides of the mold. Scrape off excess mortar using a trowel.Draw the edge of a trowel over the surface of the mold a second time,using a sawing motion to create a smooth, clean surface. Place themolded cement mortar cube (or cubes) into a container saturated withwater vapor. The relative humidity inside the curing chamber should beat least 98% relative humidity. The curing temperature should be between20° C. and 25° C. Place a moist towel over the top of the cubes toensure that they are kept sufficiently humidified. Allow the cube(s) tocure inside the mold(s) for at least 24 hr. When the cube(s) aresufficiently cured, remove them from the molds and place them back intothe humidity chamber. Remove three cubes at each time point, 3 days, 7days, 28 days, and 90 days. Use a hydraulic compression tester tocompress each cube until it fractures. Record the compressive strengthat fracture. The compressive strength of the cement mortar of thisexample prepared in this manner was found to be 19.5 MPa at 3 days, 24.7MPa at 7 days, and 33.8 MPa at 28 days.

The following Table 2 illustrates example relationships between BET SSA,BJH pore volume, and water demand for example calcium hydroxide powderin accordance with various embodiments (such as Sublime Systemsprecipitated calcium hydroxide A and Sublime Systems precipitatedcalcium hydroxide B) and commercial slaked calcium hydroxide (such asCommercial slaked calcium hydroxide A which was Chemstar Type S HydratedLime and Commerical slaked calcium hydroxide B which was MississippiLime Standard Hydrated Lime Lot #SH091420). Sublime Systems precipitatedcalcium hydroxide A and Sublime Systems precipitated calcium hydroxide Bmay both be examples of calcium hydroxide in accordance with variousembodiments and both may be electrochemical precipitated decarbonizedhydrated lime. Sublime Systems precipitated calcium hydroxide A isdiscussed above. Sublime Systems precipitated calcium hydroxide B may becalcium hydroxide synthesized at least in part using an electrochemicalreactor and a precipitation reaction, therefore the Sublime Systemsprecipitated calcium hydroxide B may be electrochemical calciumhydroxide and a precipitated calcium hydroxide. Sublime Systemsprecipitated calcium hydroxide B may be calcium hydroxide produced withno fossil fuel combustion CO₂ emissions and no limestone decompositionCO₂ emissions, so it is also a decarbonized calcium hydroxide. SublimeSystems precipitated calcium hydroxide B may be calcium hydroxide a BETspecific surface area of 2.38 m²/g, a BJH pore volume of 0.015 mL/g, anda paste consistency water demand of 0.45 g water / 1 g calciumhydroxide.

The comparison of calcium hydroxide powder in accordance with variousembodiments as compared to commercial slaked calcium hydroxide in Table2 shows that low BET specific surface area and/or low BJH pore volumemay contribute to low water demand in some dry powder solid materialssuch as calcium hydroxide powder.

TABLE 2 Material Description BET SSA (m²/g) BHJ Pore Volume (mL/g) PasteConsistency Water Demand Sublime Systems precipitated calcium hydroxideA 1.63 0.011 0.35 Sublime Systems precipitated calcium hydroxide B 2.380.015 0.45 Commercial slaked calcium hydroxide A (Chemstar Type SHydrated Lime) 22.1 0.135 1.15 Commercial slaked calcium hydroxide B(Mississippi Lime Standard Hydrated Lime Lot #SH091420) 17.5 0.101 0.95

Reducing the amount of water added to a cement paste, mortar, concrete,or related material may increase the compressive strength of thematerial once it has set and hardened. For example, FIG. 3.1 fromPractical Concrete Mix Design by Avijit Chaubey, 2020, DOI:10.1201/9780429285196, page 72, shows that compressive strength ofconcrete tends to increase as the water to cement ratio decreases.Cements and/or blended cement component materials with low water demandmay be advantageous because their low water demand enables the creationof cement paste, mortar, concrete, or other related materials withsufficient flow but low water addition, which contributes to highercompressive strength once the material has set and hardened

A key benefit of various embodiments may be the use of lime which isproduced without CO₂ emissions to the atmosphere resulting from thecombustion of fossil fuels.

A major advantage of the various embodiments may be a decrease in CO₂emissions. Currently, portland cement is one of the most widely usedmanmade materials in the world. Manufacturing portland cement accountsfor around 8% of all global CO₂ emissions, approximately half of whicharise from fossil fuel combustion and half of which arise from“chemical” emissions from limestone decomposition. These CO₂ emissionsare harmful because they contribute to global climate change. Humancivilization requires the use of cement, but CO₂ emissions must bedrastically reduced.

The decarbonized cement described of the various embodiments may be usedto substitute or fully replace portland cement for many constructionapplications. The embodied CO₂ emissions of these cement blends may besignificantly lower than portland cement. If widely adopted as areplacement for portland cement, this decarbonized pozzolanic cement inaccordance with various embodiments could significantly reduce globalCO₂ emissions.

In some embodiments, the cement described herein may have superior shelfstability or shelf life compared to other types of cement such asportland cement. In some cases, cement may decrease in performance overtime as it is stored in dry powder form. This may be manifested indecreased compressive strength, increased setting time, or otherdeleterious changes to performance. In some cases, this decrease inperformance may be related to absorption of water by a dry, hygroscopic,and/or deliquescent cement or concrete material, or a component thereof.In some cases, cement may absorb water, and some fraction of thematerial may undergo hydration reactions, such as the reaction of aliteto create calcium silicate hydrate. This may decrease the reactivity ofthis material. For this reason, cement materials may need to be storedunder special conditions to prevent the ingress of moisture as liquidwater or as water vapor, such as humidity in the atmosphere. In somecases, cement may require storage in air-tight containers such asimpermeable plastic bags, or in dehumidified storage silos, or othersimilar special conditions. In some embodiments, the cement of thevarious embodiments described herein will show less degradation inperformance compared to other cements such as portland cement, whenstored under the same conditions for the same amount of time. Forexample, in some embodiments, the cement of the various embodimentsdescribed herein will have less than 0.01%, 0.05 %, 0.1%, 0.5%, 1%, 2%,3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%,or 50% decrease in compressive strength at 1, 3, 7, 28, 56, 90, 180, or365 days when stored in air with at least 1 %, 2%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%,20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%,90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% relative humidity. In some embodiments, thisapproach may extend the shelf life by 1%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%,75%, 100%, 150%, 200%, 300%, 500%, 1000%, 2000%, 5000%, or 10000% toachieve minimal degradation in performance when stored under the sameconditions as a reference or control cement material. In someembodiments, this approach may extend the shelf life by 1 h, 2 h, 4 h, 8h, 12 h, 1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 5 days, 7 days, 10 days, 15 days, 20days, 30 days, 40 days, 50 days, 75 days, 100 days, 150 days, 200 days,300 days, 365 days, 500 days, 1000 days, 2000 days, or 5000 days toachieve minimal degradation in performance when stored under the sameconditions as a reference or control cement material. In someembodiments, the materials may absorb less than 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%,0.5%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 12%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%,35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% water on a mass basis of the hygroscopic material,after storage for 1 h, 2 h, 4 h, 8 h, 12 h, 1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 5days, 7 days, 10 days, 15 days, 20 days, 30 days, 40 days, 50 days, 75days, 100 days, 150 days, 200 days, 300 days, 365 days, 500 days, 1000days, 2000 days, or 5000 days under 1%, 2%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 15%, 20%,25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%,95%, 98%, or 99% relative humidity.

Various embodiments may include a desiccant that becomes a component ofthe final product. Various embodiments may include an alkaline solidabsorbent used as a way to extend the shelf life of a hygroscopic solid.In some embodiments, this hygroscopic powder may comprise lime,pozzolan, limestone, or cement. In some embodiments, the alkaline solidmay be potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, or another alkali oralkali earth hydroxide. In some embodiments, the alkaline solid may bein the form of pellets, flakes, beads, pearls, or powder. In someembodiments, the alkaline solid may have particles with diameters of atleast 1 micron, 3 microns, 5 microns, 10 microns, 20 microns, 30microns, 50 microns, 70 microns, 100 microns, 200 microns, 300 microns,500 microns, 700 microns, 1 mm, 1.5 mm, 2 mm, 3 mm, 4 mm, 5 mm, 6 mm, 7mm, 8 mm, 9 mm, 10 mm, 15 mm, 20 mm, 30 mm, 40 mm, 50 mm, 70 mm, 100 mm,200 mm, 300 mm, 500 mm, 700 mm, or 1000 mm. In some embodiments, thealkaline solid may have particles with diameters of less than 1 micron,3 microns, 5 microns, 10 microns, 20 microns, 30 microns, 50 microns, 70microns, 100 microns, 200 microns, 300 microns, 500 microns, 700microns, 1 mm, 1.5 mm, 2 mm, 3 mm, 4 mm, 5 mm, 6 mm, 7 mm, 8 mm, 9 mm,10 mm, 15 mm, 20 mm, 30 mm, 40 mm, 50 mm, 70 mm, 100 mm, 200 mm, 300 mm,500 mm, 700 mm, or 1000 mm. In some embodiments, the alkaline solid mayhave particles with diameters of about 1 micron, 3 microns, 5 microns,10 microns, 20 microns, 30 microns, 50 microns, 70 microns, 100 microns,200 microns, 300 microns, 500 microns, 700 microns, 1 mm, 1.5 mm, 2 mm,3 mm, 4 mm, 5 mm, 6 mm, 7 mm, 8 mm, 9 mm, 10 mm, 15 mm, 20 mm, 30 mm, 40mm, 50 mm, 70 mm, 100 mm, 200 mm, 300 mm, 500 mm, 700 mm, 1000 mm, or 1micron - 1000 mm.

Various embodiments may include sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxidemixed with a hygroscopic powder. In some embodiments, the hygroscopicpowder may be a cement powder such as portland cement, a lime-pozzolancement, a geopolymer cement, an alkali-activated cement, a blendedhydraulic cement, or another type of cement, including such cement asdescribed in this invention. In some embodiments, solid NaOH or KOH maybe blended into a cement powder to act as an internal desiccant,extending its shelf life and/or enabling storage in conditions withhigher ambient humidity without significant degradation to theperformance of the cement. In some embodiments, the NaOH or KOH maydissolve in the mixing water used to make the dry cement powder into acement mortar, grout, concrete, or other building material. In someembodiments, the NaOH or KOH may also act as a set-accelerator orstrength accelerating additive. Without being limited by any particulartheory, in some embodiments, the KOH or NaOH may activate the pozzolanicreaction by increasing the solubility of silica, as described above. Insome embodiments, the absorbent solid such as KOH or NaOH may be storedwithin the same sealed container as the hygroscopic powder, but notmixed together. In some embodiments, the NaOH or KOH may be mixed intothe hygroscopic powder such as cement powder.

Various embodiments may include a combination of materials stored in twoor more separate containers to limit undesired cementitious reactionsfrom occurring while the materials are in storage. In some embodiments,a pozzolan may be stored in a first container, and all other cementcomponents including but not limited to calcium hydroxide, portlandcement, gypsum, limestone, and/or admixtures may be stored in a secondcontainer. In some embodiments, portland cement and lime may be storedtogether in a first container, and all other cement components includingbut not limited to pozzolan, limestone, gypsum, and/or admixtures may bestored together in a second container. Various embodiments may includeseparate cement component materials that may react with one another inthe presence of water to make calcium silicate hydrate and/or otherhydrated phases. Various embodiments may include a method of storingsaid materials in the minimum number of containers possible to preventpremature reaction and/or degradation of one or more performancecharacteristics of a cementitious mixture. Various embodiments mayinclude the material compositions stored within each container. Variousembodiments may include a method for storing materials to preventdegradation. Various embodiments may include a method for determiningcombinations of materials that can safely be stored together to avoiddegradation of cement performance. Various embodiments may include amode of storage that may prevent the cement from clumping, and/or it maypreserve or enhance bulk solid flow properties to enable the cement tobe transported or dispensed more easily.

Various examples of aspects of the various embodiments are described inthe following paragraphs.

Example A. Cementitious material or materials with low embodied carbon.

Example B. Materials produced from the cementitious material ormaterials of example A. Example C. A method comprising making thecementitious material or materials of example A and/or making thematerials of example B.

Example D. The cementitious material or materials of any of examplesA-C, wherein the cementitious material or materials comprises apozzolanic cement blend composition comprising decarbonized lime, atleast one pozzolan, and optionally additional components.

Example E. The cementitious material or materials of example D, whereinthe decarbonized lime is produced using a process wherein the combinedCO₂ emissions to the atmosphere from chemically bound sources in the rawmaterial and from the combustion of fuels is less than 1 kg CO₂ per kglime.

Example F. The cementitious material or materials of example D, whereinthe decarbonized lime comprises quicklime (calcium oxide, CaO), hydratedlime (calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)₂), or a mixture of the two.

Example G. The cementitious material or materials of any of examplesA-F, used as a component of concrete, mortar, and/or other similarbuilding materials.

Example H. Decarbonized cement and methods for making decarbonizedcement.

Example I. Decarbonized cement having embodied CO₂ emissions lower thanportland cement and methods for making the same.

Example J. Methods for producing cementitious compositions andcementitious compositions.

Example K. Methods for using lime produced without CO₂ emissions to theatmosphere resulting from the combustion of fossil fuels.

Example 1. A cementitious binder comprising precipitated lime and atleast one pozzolan.

Example 2. The cementitious binder of example 1, wherein the limecomprises at least 90% calcium hydroxide by mass.

Example 3. The cementitious binder of example 2, wherein thecementitious binder comprises less than about 50% by mass portlandcement clinker.

Example 4. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein the calciumhydroxide is an electrochemical calcium hydroxide.

Example 5. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein the calciumhydroxide is a low-temperature calcium hydroxide.

Example 6. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein the calciumhydroxide is a decarbonized calcium hydroxide.

Example 7. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein the calciumhydroxide has a Barrett, Joyner, and Halenda pore volume of less thanabout 0.10 mL/g.

Example 8. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein the calciumhydroxide has a Barrett, Joyner, and Halenda pore volume of less thanabout 0.05 mL/g.

Example 9. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein the calciumhydroxide has a Brunauer, Emmett, Teller specific surface area of lessthan about 4 m2/g.

Example 10. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein the calciumhydroxide has a Brunauer, Emmett, Teller specific surface area of lessthan about 2 m2/g.

Example 11. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein the calciumhydroxide has a paste consistency water demand of less than about 0.5parts water per 1 part calcium hydroxide by mass.

Example 12. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein the calciumhydroxide has a paste consistency water demand of less than about 0.4parts water per 1 part calcium hydroxide by mass.

Example 13. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein the calciumhydroxide has a paste consistency water demand of less than about 0.5parts water per 1 part calcium hydroxide by mass, and a calciumhydroxide reactivity of greater than 90%.

Example 14. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein the calciumhydroxide has a paste consistency water demand of less than about 0.4parts water per 1 part calcium hydroxide by mass, and a reactivity ofgreater than 90%.

Example 15. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein the calciumhydroxide has a mini-slump cone water demand of less than about 0.5parts water per 1 part calcium hydroxide by mass.

Example 16. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein the calciumhydroxide has a mini-slump cone water demand of less than about 0.4parts water per 1 part calcium hydroxide by mass.

Example 17. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein the calciumhydroxide has a mini-slump cone water demand of less than about 0.5parts water per 1 part calcium hydroxide by mass, and a calciumhydroxide reactivity of greater than 90%.

Example 18. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein the calciumhydroxide has a mini-slump cone water demand of less than about 0.4parts water per 1 part calcium hydroxide by mass, and a reactivity ofgreater than 90%.

Example 19. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein the calciumhydroxide particles have an average aspect ratio of less than about 1.2.

Example 20. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein thecementitious binder has a paste consistency water demand of less thanabout 0.6 parts water per 1 part cementitious binder by mass.

Example 21. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein thecementitious binder has a paste consistency water demand of less thanabout 0.5 parts water per 1 part cementitious binder by mass.

Example 22. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein thecementitious binder has a mini-slump cone water demand of less thanabout 0.6 parts water per 1 part cementitious binder by mass.

Example 23. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein thecementitious binder has a mini-slump cone water demand of less thanabout 0.5 parts water per 1 part cementitious binder by mass.

Example 24. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein the pozzolanis a raw or calcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 25. The cementitious binder of example 4, wherein the pozzolanis a raw or calcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 26. The cementitious binder of example 5, wherein the pozzolanis a raw or calcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 27. The cementitious binder of example 6, wherein the pozzolanis a raw or calcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 28. The cementitious binder of example 7, wherein the pozzolanis a raw or calcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 29. The cementitious binder of example 8, wherein the pozzolanis a raw or calcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 30. The cementitious binder of example 11, wherein the pozzolanis a raw or calcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 31. The cementitious binder of example 12, wherein the pozzolanis a raw or calcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 32. The cementitious binder of example 13, wherein the pozzolanis a raw or calcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 33. The cementitious binder of example 14, wherein the pozzolanis a raw or calcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 34. The cementitious binder of example 19, wherein the pozzolanis a raw or calcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 35. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein thecementitious binder has a 3-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 13 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 36. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein thecementitious binder has a 7-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 20 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 37. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein thecementitious binder has a 28-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 28 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 38. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein thecementitious binder has an initial setting time of less than about 2hours.

Example 39. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein thecementitious binder has an initial setting time of less than about 3hours.

Example 40. The cementitious binder of example 11, wherein thecementitious binder has a 3-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 13 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 41. The cementitious binder of example 11, wherein thecementitious binder has a 7-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 20 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 42. The cementitious binder of example 11, wherein thecementitious binder has a 28-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 28 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 43. The cementitious binder of example 11, wherein thecementitious binder has an initial setting time of less than about 2hours.

Example 44. The cementitious binder of example 11, wherein thecementitious binder has an initial setting time of less than about 3hours.

Example 45. The cementitious binder of example 24, wherein thecementitious binder has a 3-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 13 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 46. The cementitious binder of example 24, wherein thecementitious binder has a 7-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 20 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 47. The cementitious binder of example 24, wherein thecementitious binder has a 28-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 28 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 48. The cementitious binder of example 24, wherein thecementitious binder has an initial setting time of less than about 2hours.

Example 49. The cementitious binder of example 24, wherein thecementitious binder has an initial setting time of less than about 3hours.

Example 50. The cementitious binder of example 28, wherein thecementitious binder has a 3-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 13 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 51. The cementitious binder of example 28, wherein thecementitious binder has a 7-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 20 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 52. The cementitious binder of example 28, wherein thecementitious binder has a 28-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 28 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 53. The cementitious binder of example 28, wherein thecementitious binder has an initial setting time of less than about 2hours.

Example 54. The cementitious binder of example 28, wherein thecementitious binder has an initial setting time of less than about 3hours.

Example 55. The cementitious binder of example 30, wherein thecementitious binder has a 3-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 13 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 56. The cementitious binder of example 30, wherein thecementitious binder has a 7-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 20 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 57. The cementitious binder of example 30, wherein thecementitious binder has a 28-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 28 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 58. The cementitious binder of example 30, wherein thecementitious binder has an initial setting time of less than about 2hours.

Example 59. The cementitious binder of example 30, wherein thecementitious binder has an initial setting time of less than about 3hours.

Example 60. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein thecementitious binder additionally comprises at least 5% portland cementclinker by mass.

Example 61. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein thecementitious binder additionally comprises at least 2% by mass of acalcium sulfate such as gypsum or anhydrite.

Example 62. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein thecementitious binder additionally comprises a water reducing admixture indry powder form.

Example 63. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein thecementitious binder additionally comprises a defoaming admixture.

Example 64. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein thecementitious binder additionally comprises an air entraining admixture.

Example 65. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein thecementitious binder additionally comprises a set accelerating additiveselected from the group including sodium hydroxide, calcium chloride,sodium sulfate, sodium nitrate, calcium nitrite, calcium nitrate, sodiumsilicate, sodium thiocyante, sodium lactate, triethanolamine,diethanolamine, triisopropanolamine,N,N,N′,N′-Tetrakis(2-hydroxyethyl)ethylenediamine, nanoparticulateportland cement, nanoparticulate calcium silicate hydrate,nanoparticulate limestone, or nanoparticulate lime.

Example 66. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein thecementitious binder additionally comprises sodium hydroxide.

Example 67. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein thecementitious binder additionally comprises sodium sulfate.

Example 68. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein thecementitious binder additional comprises a source of calcium carbonatesuch as limestone.

Example 69. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein thecementitious binder additionally comprises at least 2% by mass of acalcium sulfate such as gypsum or anhydrite, and a set acceleratingadditive selected from the group including sodium hydroxide, calciumchloride, sodium sulfate, sodium nitrate, calcium nitrite, calciumnitrate, sodium silicate, sodium thiocyante, sodium lactate,triethanolamine, diethanolamine, triisopropanolamine,N,N,N′,N′-Tetrakis(2-hydroxyethyl)ethylenediamine, nanoparticulateportland cement, nanoparticulate calcium silicate hydrate,nanoparticulate limestone, or nanoparticulate lime.

Example 70. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein thecementitious binder additionally comprises at least 2% by mass of acalcium sulfate such as gypsum or anhydrite, and a set acceleratingadditive selected from the group including sodium hydroxide and sodiumsulfate.

Example 71. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein thecementitious binder additionally comprises at least 2% by mass of acalcium sulfate such as gypsum or anhydrite, a set accelerating additiveselected from the group including sodium hydroxide, calcium chloride,sodium sulfate, sodium nitrate, calcium nitrite, calcium nitrate, sodiumsilicate, sodium thiocyante, sodium lactate, triethanolamine,diethanolamine, triisopropanolamine,N,N,N′,N′-Tetrakis(2-hydroxyethyl)ethylenediamine, nanoparticulateportland cement, nanoparticulate calcium silicate hydrate,nanoparticulate limestone, or nanoparticulate lime, and a water reducingadmixture in dry powder form.

Example 72. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein thecementitious binder additionally comprises at least 2% by mass of acalcium sulfate such as gypsum or anhydrite, a set accelerating additiveselected from the group including sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfate,and a water reducing admixture in dry powder form.

Example 73. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein thecementitious binder contains less than about 25% by mass portland cementclinker.

Example 74. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein thecementitious binder contains less than about 10% by mass portland cementclinker.

Example 75. The cementitious binder of example 3, wherein thecementitious binder contains no portland cement clinker.

Example 76. The cementitious binder of example 7, wherein thecementitious binder contains less than about 25% by mass portland cementclinker.

Example 77. The cementitious binder of example 7, wherein thecementitious binder contains less than about 10% by mass portland cementclinker.

Example 78. The cementitious binder of example 7, wherein thecementitious binder contains no portland cement clinker.

Example 79. The cementitious binder of example 11, wherein thecementitious binder contains less than about 25% by mass portland cementclinker.

Example 80. The cementitious binder of example 11, wherein thecementitious binder contains less than about 10% by mass portland cementclinker.

Example 81. The cementitious binder of example 11, wherein thecementitious binder contains no portland cement clinker.

Example 82. A cementitious binder comprising lime and at least onepozzolan.

Example 83. The cementitious binder of example 82, wherein the limecomprises at least 90% calcium hydroxide by mass.

Example 84. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein the lime hasa Barrett, Joyner, and Halenda pore volume of less than about 0.10 mL/g.

Example 85. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein the lime hasa Barrett, Joyner, and Halenda pore volume of less than about 0.05 mL/g.

Example 86. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein the lime hasa Brunauer, Emmett, Teller specific surface area of less than about 4m2/g.

Example 87. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein the lime hasa Brunauer, Emmett, Teller specific surface area of less than about 2m2/g.

Example 88. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein the lime hasa paste consistency water demand of less than about 0.5 parts water per1 part calcium hydroxide by mass.

Example 89. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein the lime hasa paste consistency water demand of less than about 0.4 parts water per1 part calcium hydroxide by mass.

Example 90. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein the lime hasa paste consistency water demand of less than about 0.5 parts water per1 part calcium hydroxide by mass, and a reactivity of greater than 90%.

Example 91. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein the lime hasa paste consistency water demand of less than about 0.4 parts water per1 part calcium hydroxide by mass, and a reactivity of greater than 90%.

Example 92. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein the lime hasa mini-slump cone water demand of less than about 0.5 parts water per 1part calcium hydroxide by mass.

Example 93. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein the lime hasa mini-slump cone water demand of less than about 0.4 parts water per 1part calcium hydroxide by mass.

Example 94. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein the lime hasa mini-slump cone water demand of less than about 0.5 parts water per 1part calcium hydroxide by mass, and a reactivity of greater than 90%.

Example 95. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein the lime hasa mini-slump cone water demand of less than about 0.4 parts water per 1part calcium hydroxide by mass, and a reactivity of greater than 90%.

Example 96. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein the limeparticles have an average aspect ratio of less than about 1.2.

Example 97. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein thecementitious binder has a paste consistency water demand of less thanabout 0.6 parts water per 1 part cementitious binder by mass.

Example 98. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein thecementitious binder has a paste consistency water demand of less thanabout 0.5 parts water per 1 part cementitious binder by mass.

Example 99. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein thecementitious binder has a mini-slump cone water demand of less thanabout 0.6 parts water per 1 part cementitious binder by mass.

Example 100. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein thecementitious binder has a mini-slump cone water demand of less thanabout 0.5 parts water per 1 part cementitious binder by mass.

Example 101. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein the pozzolanis a raw or calcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 102. The cementitious binder of example 84, wherein the pozzolanis a raw or calcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 103. The cementitious binder of example 85, wherein the pozzolanis a raw or calcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 104. The cementitious binder of example 88, wherein the pozzolanis a raw or calcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 105. The cementitious binder of example 89, wherein the pozzolanis a raw or calcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 106. The cementitious binder of example 90, wherein the pozzolanis a raw or calcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 107. The cementitious binder of example 91, wherein the pozzolanis a raw or calcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 108. The cementitious binder of example 96, wherein the pozzolanis a raw or calcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 109. The cementitious binder of example 97, wherein the pozzolanis a raw or calcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 110. The cementitious binder of example 98, wherein the pozzolanis a raw or calcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 111. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein thecementitious binder has a 3-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 13 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 112. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein thecementitious binder has a 7-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 20 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 113. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein thecementitious binder has a 28-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 28 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 114. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein thecementitious binder has an initial setting time of less than about 2hours.

Example 115. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein thecementitious binder has an initial setting time of less than about 3hours.

Example 116. The cementitious binder of example 91, wherein thecementitious binder has a 3-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 13 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 117. The cementitious binder of example 91, wherein thecementitious binder has a 7-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 20 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 118. The cementitious binder of example 91, wherein thecementitious binder has a 28-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 28 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 119. The cementitious binder of example 91, wherein thecementitious binder has an initial setting time of less than about 2hours.

Example 120. The cementitious binder of example 91, wherein thecementitious binder has an initial setting time of less than about 3hours.

Example 121. The cementitious binder of example 97, wherein thecementitious binder has a 3-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 13 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 122. The cementitious binder of example 97, wherein thecementitious binder has a 7-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 20 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 123. The cementitious binder of example 97, wherein thecementitious binder has a 28-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 28 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 124. The cementitious binder of example 97, wherein thecementitious binder has an initial setting time of less than about 2hours.

Example 125. The cementitious binder of example 97, wherein thecementitious binder has an initial setting time of less than about 3hours.

Example 126. The cementitious binder of example 102, wherein thecementitious binder has a 3-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 13 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 127. The cementitious binder of example 102, wherein thecementitious binder has a 7-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 20 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 128. The cementitious binder of example 102, wherein thecementitious binder has a 28-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 28 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 129. The cementitious binder of example 102, wherein thecementitious binder has an initial setting time of less than about 2hours.

Example 130. The cementitious binder of example 102, wherein thecementitious binder has an initial setting time of less than about 3hours.

Example 131. The cementitious binder of example 104, wherein thecementitious binder has a 3-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 13 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 132. The cementitious binder of example 104, wherein thecementitious binder has a 7-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 20 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 133. The cementitious binder of example 104, wherein thecementitious binder has a 28-day compressive strength of greater thanabout 28 MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 134. The cementitious binder of example 104, wherein thecementitious binder has an initial setting time of less than about 2hours.

Example 135. The cementitious binder of example 104, wherein thecementitious binder has an initial setting time of less than about 3hours.

Example 136. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein thecementitious binder additionally comprises at least 5% portland cementclinker by mass.

Example 137. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein thecementitious binder additionally comprises at least 2% by mass of acalcium sulfate such as gypsum or anhydrite.

Example 138. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein thecementitious binder additionally comprises a water reducing admixture indry powder form.

Example 139. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein thecementitious binder additionally comprises a defoaming admixture.

Example 140. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein thecementitious binder additionally comprises an air entraining admixture.

Example 141. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein thecementitious binder additionally comprises a set accelerating additiveselected from the group including sodium hydroxide, calcium chloride,sodium sulfate, sodium nitrate, calcium nitrite, calcium nitrate, sodiumsilicate, sodium thiocyante, sodium lactate, triethanolamine,diethanolamine, triisopropanolamine,N,N,N′,N′-Tetrakis(2-hydroxyethyl)ethylenediamine, nanoparticulateportland cement, nanoparticulate calcium silicate hydrate,nanoparticulate limestone, or nanoparticulate lime.

Example 142. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein thecementitious binder additionally comprises sodium hydroxide.

Example 143. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein thecementitious binder additionally comprises sodium sulfate.

Example 144. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein thecementitious binder additional comprises a source of calcium carbonatesuch as limestone.

Example 145. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein thecementitious binder additionally comprises at least 2% by mass of acalcium sulfate such as gypsum or anhydrite, and a set acceleratingadditive selected from the group including sodium hydroxide, calciumchloride, sodium sulfate, sodium nitrate, calcium nitrite, calciumnitrate, sodium silicate, sodium thiocyante, sodium lactate,triethanolamine, diethanolamine, triisopropanolamine,N,N,N′,N′-Tetrakis(2-hydroxyethyl)ethylenediamine, nanoparticulateportland cement, nanoparticulate calcium silicate hydrate,nanoparticulate limestone, or nanoparticulate lime.

Example 146. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein thecementitious binder additionally comprises at least 2% by mass of acalcium sulfate such as gypsum or anhydrite, and a set acceleratingadditive selected from the group including sodium hydroxide and sodiumsulfate.

Example 147. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein thecementitious binder additionally comprises at least 2% by mass of acalcium sulfate such as gypsum or anhydrite, a set accelerating additiveselected from the group including sodium hydroxide, calcium chloride,sodium sulfate, sodium nitrate, calcium nitrite, calcium nitrate, sodiumsilicate, sodium thiocyante, sodium lactate, triethanolamine,diethanolamine, triisopropanolamine,N,N,N′,N′-Tetrakis(2-hydroxyethyl)ethylenediamine, nanoparticulateportland cement, nanoparticulate calcium silicate hydrate,nanoparticulate limestone, or nanoparticulate lime, and a water reducingadmixture in dry powder form.

Example 148. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein thecementitious binder additionally comprises at least 2% by mass of acalcium sulfate such as gypsum or anhydrite, a set accelerating additiveselected from the group including sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfate,and a water reducing admixture in dry powder form.

Example 149. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein thecementitious binder contains less than about 25% by mass portland cementclinker.

Example 150. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein thecementitious binder contains less than about 10% by mass portland cementclinker.

Example 151. The cementitious binder of example 83, wherein thecementitious binder contains no portland cement clinker.

Example 152. The cementitious binder of example 89, wherein thecementitious binder contains less than about 25% by mass portland cementclinker.

Example 153. The cementitious binder of example 89, wherein thecementitious binder contains less than about 10% by mass portland cementclinker.

Example 154. The cementitious binder of example 89, wherein thecementitious binder contains no portland cement clinker.

Example 155. The cementitious binder of example 91, wherein thecementitious binder contains less than about 25% by mass portland cementclinker.

Example 156. The cementitious binder of example 91, wherein thecementitious binder contains less than about 10% by mass portland cementclinker.

Example 157. The cementitious binder of example 91, wherein thecementitious binder contains no portland cement clinker.

Example 158. A cementitious binder comprising lime, at least onepozzolan, and at least one additional material selected from the groupincluding tricalcium silicate, calcium aluminate cement, calciumsulfoaluminate cement, and ye’elemite.

Example 159. The cementitious binder of example 158 wherein theadditional material comprises tricalcium silicate.

Example 160. The cementitious binder of example 158 wherein theadditional material comprises calcium aluminate cement.

Example 161. The cementitious binder of example 158 wherein theadditional material comprises calcium sulfoaluminate cement.

Example 162. The cementitious binder of example 158 wherein theadditional material comprises ye’elemite.

Example 163. The cementitious binder of example 158, wherein thecementitious binder contains less than about 25% by mass portland cementclinker.

Example 164. The cementitious binder of example 158, wherein thecementitious binder contains less than about 10% by mass portland cementclinker.

Example 165. The cementitious binder of example 158, wherein thecementitious binder contains no portland cement clinker.

Example 166. The cementitious binder of example 158, wherein the lime isa precipitated lime.

Example 167. The cementitious binder of example 158, wherein the limecomprises at least 90% calcium hydroxide on a mass basis.

Example 168. The cementitious binder of example 167, wherein the lime isa precipitated calcium hydroxide.

Example 169. The cementitious binder of example 168 wherein theadditional material comprises tricalcium silicate.

Example 170. The cementitious binder of example 168 wherein theadditional material comprises calcium aluminate cement.

Example 171. The cementitious binder of example 168 wherein theadditional material comprises calcium sulfoaluminate cement.

Example 172. The cementitious binder of example 168 wherein theadditional material comprises ye’elemite.

Example 173. The cementitious binder of example 168, wherein thecementitious binder contains less than about 25% by mass portland cementclinker.

Example 174. The cementitious binder of example 168157, wherein thecementitious binder contains less than about 10% by mass portland cementclinker.

Example 175. The cementitious binder of example 168, wherein thecementitious binder contains no portland cement clinker.

Example 176. A method of forming a cementitious binder, comprising:creating a calcium hydroxide through a precipitation reaction; selectingat least one pozzolan; optionally, selecting additional components fromthe group including portland cement, portland cement clinker, tricalciumsilicate, ye’elemite, calcium aluminate cement, calcium sulfoaluminatecement, calcium carbonate, water reducing admixture, set acceleratingadmixture, defoaming admixture, air entraining admixture, and/or calciumsulfate; and blending the calcium hydroxide, the selected at least onepozzolan, and any selected components to create a mixture.

Example 177. The method of example 176, wherein the cementitious bindercomprises less than about 50% by mass portland cement clinker.

Example 178. The method of example 177, wherein the calcium hydroxide isan electrochemical calcium hydroxide.

Example 179. The method of example 177, wherein the calcium hydroxide isa low-temperature calcium hydroxide.

Example 180. The method of example 177, wherein the calcium hydroxide isa decarbonized calcium hydroxide.

Example 181. The method of example 177, wherein the calcium hydroxidehas a Barrett, Joyner, and Halenda pore volume of less than about 0.10mL/g.

Example 182. The method of example 177, wherein the calcium hydroxidehas a Barrett, Joyner, and Halenda pore volume of less than about 0.05mL/g.

Example 183. The method of example 177, wherein the calcium hydroxidehas a Brunauer, Emmett, Teller specific surface area of less than about4 m2/g.

Example 184. The method of example 177, wherein the calcium hydroxidehas a Brunauer, Emmett, Teller specific surface area of less than about2 m2/g.

Example 185. The method of example 177, wherein the calcium hydroxidehas a paste consistency water demand of less than about 0.5 parts waterper 1 part calcium hydroxide by mass.

Example 186. The method of example 177, wherein the calcium hydroxidehas a paste consistency water demand of less than about 0.4 parts waterper 1 part calcium hydroxide by mass.

Example 187. The method of example 177, wherein the calcium hydroxidehas a paste consistency water demand of less than about 0.5 parts waterper 1 part calcium hydroxide by mass, and a reactivity of greater than90%.

Example 188. The method of example 177, wherein the calcium hydroxidehas a paste consistency water demand of less than about 0.4 parts waterper 1 part calcium hydroxide by mass, and a reactivity of greater than90%.

Example 189. The method of example 177, wherein the calcium hydroxidehas a mini-slump cone water demand of less than about 0.5 parts waterper 1 part calcium hydroxide by mass.

Example 190. The method of example 177, wherein the calcium hydroxidehas a mini-slump cone water demand of less than about 0.4 parts waterper 1 part calcium hydroxide by mass.

Example 191. The method of example 177, wherein the calcium hydroxidehas a mini-slump cone water demand of less than about 0.5 parts waterper 1 part calcium hydroxide by mass, and a reactivity of greater than90%.

Example 192. The method of example 177, wherein the calcium hydroxidehas a mini-slump cone water demand of less than about 0.4 parts waterper 1 part calcium hydroxide by mass, and a reactivity of greater than90%.

Example 193. The method of example 177, wherein the calcium hydroxideparticles have an average aspect ratio of less than about 1.2.

Example 194. The method of example 177, wherein the cementitious binderhas a paste consistency water demand of less than about 0.6 parts waterper 1 part cementitious binder by mass.

Example 195. The method of example 177, wherein the cementitious binderhas a paste consistency water demand of less than about 0.5 parts waterper 1 part cementitious binder by mass.

Example 196. The method of example 177, wherein the cementitious binderhas a mini-slump water demand of less than about 0.6 parts water per 1part cementitious binder by mass.

Example 197. The method of example 177, wherein the cementitious binderhas a mini-slump water demand of less than about 0.5 parts water per 1part cementitious binder by mass.

Example 198. The method of example 177, wherein the pozzolan is a raw orcalcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 199. The method of example 178, wherein the pozzolan is a raw orcalcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 200. The method of example 179, wherein the pozzolan is a raw orcalcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 201. The method of example 180, wherein the pozzolan is a raw orcalcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 202. The method of example 181, wherein the pozzolan is a raw orcalcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 203. The method of example 182, wherein the pozzolan is a raw orcalcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 204. The method of example 185, wherein the pozzolan is a raw orcalcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 205. The method of example 186, wherein the pozzolan is a raw orcalcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 206. The method of example 187, wherein the pozzolan is a raw orcalcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 207. The method of example 188, wherein the pozzolan is a raw orcalcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 208. The method of example 193, wherein the pozzolan is a raw orcalcined natural pozzolan or clay.

Example 209. The method of example 177, wherein the cementitious binderhas a 3-day compressive strength of greater than about 13 MPa in 2 inchcement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 210. The method of example 177, wherein the cementitious binderhas a 7-day compressive strength of greater than about 20 MPa in 2 inchcement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 211. The method of example 177, wherein the cementitious binderhas a 28-day compressive strength of greater than about 28 MPa in 2 inchcement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 212. The method of example 177, wherein the cementitious binderhas an initial setting time of less than about 2 hours.

Example 213. The method of example 177, wherein the cementitious binderhas an initial setting time of less than about 3 hours.

Example 214. The method of example 185, wherein the cementitious binderhas a 3-day compressive strength of greater than about 13 MPa in 2 inchcement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 215. The method of example 185, wherein the cementitious binderhas a 7-day compressive strength of greater than about 20 MPa in 2 inchcement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 216. The method of example 185, wherein the cementitious binderhas a 28-day compressive strength of greater than about 28 MPa in 2 inchcement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 217. The method of example 185, wherein the cementitious binderhas an initial setting time of less than about 2 hours.

Example 218. The method of example 185, wherein the cementitious binderhas an initial setting time of less than about 3 hours.

Example 219. The method of example 198, wherein the cementitious binderhas a 3-day compressive strength of greater than about 13 MPa in 2 inchcement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 220. The method of example 198, wherein the cementitious binderhas a 7-day compressive strength of greater than about 20 MPa in 2 inchcement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 221. The method of example 198, wherein the cementitious binderhas a 28-day compressive strength of greater than about 28 MPa in 2 inchcement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 222. The method of example 198, wherein the cementitious binderhas an initial setting time of less than about 2 hours.

Example 223. The method of example 198, wherein the cementitious binderhas an initial setting time of less than about 3 hours.

Example 224. The method of example 202, wherein the cementitious binderhas a 3-day compressive strength of greater than about 13 MPa in 2 inchcement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 225. The method of example 202, wherein the cementitious binderhas a 7-day compressive strength of greater than about 20 MPa in 2 inchcement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 226. The method of example 202, wherein the cementitious binderhas a 28-day compressive strength of greater than about 28 MPa in 2 inchcement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 227. The method of example 202, wherein the cementitious binderhas an initial setting time of less than about 2 hours.

Example 228. The method of example 202, wherein the cementitious binderhas an initial setting time of less than about 3 hours.

Example 229. The method of example 204, wherein the cementitious binderhas a 3-day compressive strength of greater than about 13 MPa in 2 inchcement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 230. The method of example 204, wherein the cementitious binderhas a 7-day compressive strength of greater than about 20 MPa in 2 inchcement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 231. The method of example 204, wherein the cementitious binderhas a 28-day compressive strength of greater than about 28 MPa in 2 inchcement mortar cube compressive strength tests.

Example 232. The method of example 204, wherein the cementitious binderhas an initial setting time of less than about 2 hours.

Example 233. The method of example 204, wherein the cementitious binderhas an initial setting time of less than about 3 hours.

Example 234. The method of example 177, wherein the optional additionalcomponents include at least 5% portland cement clinker by totalcementitious binder mass.

Example 235. The method of example 177, wherein the optional additionalcomponents include at least 2% of a calcium sulfate such as gypsum oranhydrite by total cementitious binder mass.

Example 236. The method of example 177, wherein the optional additionalcomponents include a water reducing admixture in dry powder form.

Example 237. The method of example 177, wherein the optional additionalcomponents include a defoaming admixture.

Example 238. The method of example 177, wherein the optional additionalcomponents include an air entraining admixture.

Example 239. The method of example 177, wherein the optional additionalcomponents include a set accelerating additive selected from the groupincluding sodium hydroxide, calcium chloride, sodium sulfate, sodiumnitrate, calcium nitrite, calcium nitrate, sodium silicate, sodiumthiocyante, sodium lactate, triethanolamine, diethanolamine,triisopropanolamine, N,N,N′,N′-Tetrakis(2-hydroxyethyl)ethylenediamine,nanoparticulate portland cement, nanoparticulate calcium silicatehydrate, nanoparticulate limestone, or nanoparticulate lime.

Example 240. The method of example 177, wherein the optional additionalcomponents include sodium hydroxide.

Example 241. The method of example 177, wherein the optional additionalcomponents include sodium sulfate.

Example 242. The method of example 177, wherein the optional additionalcomponents include a source of calcium carbonate such as limestone.

Example 243. The method of example 177, wherein the optional additionalcomponents include at least 2% by mass of a calcium sulfate such asgypsum or anhydrite, and a set accelerating additive selected from thegroup including sodium hydroxide, calcium chloride, sodium sulfate,sodium nitrate, calcium nitrite, calcium nitrate, sodium silicate,sodium thiocyante, sodium lactate, triethanolamine, diethanolamine,triisopropanolamine, N,N,N′,N′-Tetrakis(2-hydroxyethyl)ethylenediamine,nanoparticulate portland cement, nanoparticulate calcium silicatehydrate, nanoparticulate limestone, or nanoparticulate lime.

Example 244. The method of example 177, wherein the optional additionalcomponents include at least 2% by mass of a calcium sulfate such asgypsum or anhydrite, and a set accelerating additive selected from thegroup including sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfate.

Example 245. The method of example 177, wherein the optional additionalcomponents include at least 2% by mass of a calcium sulfate such asgypsum or anhydrite, a set accelerating additive selected from the groupincluding sodium hydroxide, calcium chloride, sodium sulfate, sodiumnitrate, calcium nitrite, calcium nitrate, sodium silicate, sodiumthiocyante, sodium lactate, triethanolamine, diethanolamine,triisopropanolamine, N,N,N′,N′-Tetrakis(2-hydroxyethyl)ethylenediamine,nanoparticulate portland cement, nanoparticulate calcium silicatehydrate, nanoparticulate limestone, or nanoparticulate lime, and a waterreducing admixture in dry powder form.

Example 246. The method of example 177, wherein the optional additionalcomponents include at least 2% of a calcium sulfate such as gypsum oranhydrite by total cementitious binder mass, a set accelerating additiveselected from the group including sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfate,and a water reducing admixture in dry powder form.

Example 247. The method of example 177, wherein the optional additionalcomponents include less than about 25% portland cement clinker by totalcementitious binder mass.

Example 248. The method of example 177, wherein the optional additionalcomponents include less than about 10% portland cement clinker by totalcementitious binder mass.

Example 249. The method of example 177, wherein the optional additionalcomponents include no portland cement clinker.

Example 250. The method of example 181, wherein the optional additionalcomponents include less than about 25% portland cement clinker by totalcementitious binder mass.

Example 251. The method of example 181, wherein the optional additionalcomponents include less than about 10% portland cement clinker by totalcementitious binder mass.

Example 252. The method of example 181, wherein the optional additionalcomponents include no portland cement clinker.

Example 253. The method of example 185, wherein the optional additionalcomponents include less than about 25% portland cement clinker by totalcementitious binder mass.

Example 254. The method of example 185, wherein the optional additionalcomponents include less than about 10% portland cement clinker by totalcementitious binder mass.

Example 255. The method of example 185, wherein the optional additionalcomponents include no portland cement clinker.

Example 256. The cementitious binder of any of examples 1-175 wherein atleast the lime is produced using a process wherein the combined CO₂emissions to the atmosphere from chemically bound sources in the rawmaterial and from the combustion of fuels is less than 1 kg CO₂ per kglime.

Example 257. The method of any of examples 176-255, wherein the calciumhydroxide is produced using a process wherein the combined CO₂ emissionsto the atmosphere from chemically bound sources in the raw material andfrom the combustion of fuels is less than 1 kg CO₂ per kg calciumhydroxide.

Example 258. The method of any of examples 176-257, wherein the mixtureis a powder mixture.

Example 259. The method of example 258, wherein the powder mixture is adry powder mixture.

Example 260. The method of any of examples 176-257, wherein the mixtureis a uniform mixture.

Example 261. The method of example 260, wherein the uniform mixture is auniform dry powder mixture.

Various ASTMs are discussed herein and all such discussed ASTMs arefully incorporated herein as part of this disclosure for all purposes.Such ASTMs filed incorporated fully by reference for all purposesinclude ASTM C91, C109, C114, C141, C143, C150, C151, C185, C191, C204,C206, C207, C227, C230, C260, C266, C267, C430, C451, C494, C595, C596,C807, C821, C989, C1012, C1038, C1090, C1097, C1152, C1157, C1202,C1218, C1260, C1329, C1437, C1489, C1567, C1698, C1702, C1707, C157,C403, C642, C1293, and G109.

The foregoing method descriptions are provided merely as illustrativeexamples and are not intended to require or imply that the steps of thevarious embodiments must be performed in the order presented. As will beappreciated by one of skill in the art the order of steps in theforegoing embodiments may be performed in any order. Words such as“thereafter,” “then,” “next,” etc. are not necessarily intended to limitthe order of the steps; these words may be used to guide the readerthrough the description of the methods. Further, any reference to claimelements in the singular, for example, using the articles “a,” “an” or“the” is not to be construed as limiting the element to the singular.Further, any step of any embodiment described herein can be used in anyother embodiment.

The preceding description of the disclosed embodiments is provided toenable any person skilled in the art to make or use the describedembodiment. Various modifications to these embodiments will be readilyapparent to those skilled in the art, and the generic principles definedherein may be applied to other embodiments without departing from thescope of the disclosure. Thus, the present invention is not intended tobe limited to the embodiments shown herein but is to be accorded thewidest scope consistent with the following claims and the principles andnovel features disclosed herein.

1. A cementitious binder comprising at least 10% precipitated lime bymass and at least 20% at least one pozzolan by mass.
 2. The cementitiousbinder of claim 1, wherein the precipitated lime comprises at least 90%calcium hydroxide by mass.
 3. The cementitious binder of claim 2,wherein the cementitious binder comprises less than 50% portland cementclinker by mass.
 4. The cementitious binder of claim 2, wherein thecementitious binder comprises less than 25% portland cement clinker bymass.
 5. The cementitious binder of claim 3, wherein the cementitiousbinder comprises at least 1% calcium sulfate by mass.
 6. Thecementitious binder of claim 3, wherein the precipitated lime is anelectrochemical and/or decarbonized precipitated lime.
 7. Thecementitious binder of claim 3, wherein the precipitated lime has aBarrett, Joyner, and Halenda pore volume of less than 0.02 mL/g.
 8. Thecementitious binder of claim 3, wherein the precipitated lime has a BETspecific surface area of less than 5 m2/g.
 9. The cementitious binder ofclaim 3, wherein the cementitious binder has a paste consistency waterdemand of less than 0.6 parts water per 1 part cementitious binder bymass.
 10. The cementitious binder of claim 9, wherein the precipitatedlime is an electrochemical and/or decarbonized precipitated lime. 11.The cementitious binder of claim 3, wherein the cementitious bindercomprises at least 0.25% sodium hydroxide by mass.
 12. The cementitiousbinder of claim 3, wherein the at least one pozzolan is a syntheticpozzolan.
 13. The cementitious binder of claim 3, wherein thecementitious binder has a 3-day compressive strength of greater than 13MPa in 2 inch cement mortar cube compressive strength tests, whileachieving cement mortar flow greater than 105% as measured according toASTM Standard C230, at a water to binder mass ratio of less than 0.55.14. The cementitious binder of claim 12, wherein the cementitious binderhas a 3-day compressive strength of greater than 13 MPa in 2 inch cementmortar cube compressive strength tests, while achieving cement mortarflow greater than 105% as measured according to ASTM Standard C230, at awater to binder mass ratio of less than 0.55.
 15. The cementitiousbinder of claim 3, wherein the cementitious binder’s performance meetsor exceeds requirements for a GU cement stated in ASTM StandardC1157-20a, including an autoclave length change not more than 0.80% asmeasured according to ASTM C151, an initial setting time not less than45 minutes and not more than 420 minutes as measured according to ASTMC191, a mortar air content not more than 12% volume as measuredaccording to ASTM C185, a 3-day compressive strength not less than 13.0MPa as measured according to ASTM C109, a 7-day compressive strength notless than 20.0 MPa as measured according to ASTM C109, a 28-daycompressive strength not less than 28.0 MPa as measured according toASTM C109, and a mortar bar expansion at 14 days not more than 0.020% asmeasured according to ASTM C1038.
 16. A cementitious binder comprisingat least 10% lime by mass, at least 20% of at least one pozzolan bymass, and at least 5% of at least one material selected from the groupconsisting of tricalcium silicate, calcium aluminate cement, calciumsulfoaluminate cement, and ye’elemite.
 17. The cementitious binder ofclaim 16, wherein the material comprises calcium sulfoaluminate cement.18. The cementitious binder of claim 16, wherein the cementitious bindercontains no portland cement clinker.
 19. The cementitious binder ofclaim 18, wherein the lime is an electrochemical and/or decarbonizedlime.
 20. A method of forming a cementitious binder comprising: creatinga calcium hydroxide through a precipitation reaction; selecting at leastone pozzolan; selecting at least one material from the group consistingof portland cement, portland cement clinker, tricalcium silicate,ye’elemite, calcium aluminate cement, calcium sulfoaluminate cement,calcium carbonate, water reducing admixture, set accelerating admixture,defoaming admixture, air entraining admixture, and calcium sulfate; andblending the calcium hydroxide, at least one pozzolan, and the at leastone material to create a uniform dry powder mixture.